Novel SPE purification approach using the direct adsorption of vaporised propionic acid in food for rapid HPLC determination.

Solid phase extraction (SPE) is a technique widely used in food analysis for the isolation of analytes. Herein, we proposed a novel application of SPE to extract vaporised propionic acid, a common preservative, from a heated sample solution. A sample was heated under acidified conditions and the resulting steam was directly passed through an SPE column to extract the propionic acid, followed by elution and HPLC analysis. Here, the extraction on the SPE column ensures direct capture of propionic acid. The results demonstrated excellent linearity (R2 greater than 0.999) and recoveries of 89.9%-97.6% with intra- and inter-day precisions lower than 3.9%. To the best of our knowledge, no study has investigated the applicability of SPE to an analyte vaporised in the headspace of food products. The proposed method is promising in its application to various volatile compounds and in the routine analysis of propionic acid in food.

Residue levels of organophosphate pesticides and dialkylphosphates in agricultural products in Japan.

High urinary levels of dialkylphosphates (DAPs), which are common structures of organophosphate pesticides (OPs), have been associated with several adverse health outcomes in human biomonitoring studies. Previous studies have indicated that dietary OP exposure and ingestion of environmentally degraded DAP, which is inactive with acetylcholinesterase, can lead to an increase in urinary DAP levels in the general population. However, the specific food sources contributing to the intake of OPs and DAPs have not been identified. In this study, we analyzed the levels of OPs and preformed DAPs in various food items. DAP levels were markedly high in certain fruits, such as persimmon, apple juice, kiwi, and mandarin. In contrast, only moderate levels of OPs were detected in these foods. Furthermore, the levels of OPs and DAPs were positively associated with vegetables, whereas no such association was observed in fruits. Increased consumption of certain fruits presumably leads to a marked increase in urinary DAP levels in individuals despite limited exposure to OPs, resulting in reduced reliability of urinary DAPs as a marker of OP exposure. Therefore, the possible effects of dietary habits and the resulting intake of preformed DAPs should be considered when interpreting biomonitoring data of urinary DAPs. Additionally, DAP levels in most organic foods were much lower than those in conventional foods, suggesting that the reduction in urinary DAPs by organic diet intervention may be mainly attributed to the reduced intake of preformed DAPs rather than reduced exposure to OPs. Therefore, urinary DAP levels may not be suitable indicators for evaluating ingested OP exposure.

A diet supplemented with cholic acid elevates blood pressure accompanied by albuminuria in rats.

A diet supplemented with cholic acid (CA), the primary 12α-hydroxylated bile acid, can induce hepatic lipid accumulation in rats without obesity. This study examined the effects of a CA-supplemented diet on blood pressure (BP). After acclimation, WKAH/HkmSlc rats (3 weeks old) were divided into two groups and fed with a control AIN-93-based diet or a CA-supplemented diet (0.5 g CA/kg) for 13 weeks. The CA diet increased systolic and diastolic BP as well as hepatic lipid concentrations in the rats. No changes were found in the blood sodium concentration. Urinary albumin concentration increased in CA-fed rats. An increase was observed in the hepatic expression of ATP-binding cassette subfamily B member 1B that correlated BPs and urinary albumin concentration accompanied by an increase in portal taurocholic acid concentration. These results suggest that 12α-hydroxylated bile acids are involved in increased BP and albuminuria via alteration of hepatic function.

Easily Operable Quantification Method of 21 Plant-Derived Alkaloids in Human Serum by Automatic Sample Preparation and Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry.

In this study, we developed an easily operable quantification method for 21 plant-derived alkaloids in human serum by automatic sample preparation and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. We designed to perform parallel sample preparation by a developed apparatus, which increased sample throughput. We conducted an automatic sample preparation through de-proteinization with 0.1% formic acid in methanol and achieved recovery rates of 89-107% (2.0-14% RSD) for all targeted analytes, demonstrating its high repeatability. The method validation results were satisfactory as follows: the linearity (r 2) of each calibration curve ranged from 0.978 to 1.000; the inter- and intra-day accuracies were 89.0-125% and 82.1-110%, respectively; the inter- and intra-day precisions were below 13% and 10%, respectively. Additionally, the lower limits of detection and quantification were 0.0044-0.047 and 0.013-0.14 ng/mL, respectively. Finally, the developed method was applied to pseudo-protoveratrine A poisoning serum and pseudo-colchicine poisoning serum, which were prepared by diluting acute-poisoning mice serum with human serum. Our method successfully quantitated protoveratrine A (0.15-0.25 ng/mL) and colchicine (4.8-6.0 ng/mL). Thus, our method is essential for prompt clinical treatment and critical care on patient in acute intoxication cases caused by plant-derived alkaloids. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10337-022-04212-5.

[Internal Quality Control of Residual Pesticides Analysis Using Multiple Stable Isotope Labeled Compounds].

Internal quality control (IQC) is essential to ensure the reliability of the results of chemical analysis. In this study, we propose a novel method of IQC for multiresidue analysis of pesticides. A total of seven stable isotope labeled compounds (SILC) were added to analytical samples and were used to monitor and evaluate the quality of analytical results. In contrast to conventional IQC method in which only a limited number of control materials were analyzed to ensure the reliability of the results for an entire batch, the developed method can monitor the analytical quality of all the samples in the batch. It was shown that the developed method could achieve better performance than that of conventional method. Therefore, the developed method is considered to be promising for practical applications.(Received January 27, 2022; Accepted July 4, 2022).

[A Rapid Determination Method of Metals in Foods for Emergency Response to Health Crisis].

A rapid determination method for emergency response to health crisis caused by metals in foods, was developed using microwave decomposition equipment and inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES). The method was assessed for 18 elements (Al, As, B, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, Sn, Tl and Zn) in 5 kinds of beverages and 7 kinds of foods. A single-laboratory method validation study was performed using food samples added with 20 mg/kg of each metal. Trueness was 88-108% and intralaboratory reproducibility was 0.2-11.3%. Time required for analysis was less than 3 hr. Thus, the presented method could be useful for rapid analysis of metals involved food poisoning cases.

Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Heliangin from Jerusalem Artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus) Leaves Might Prevent Atherosclerosis.

Atherosclerosis is considered the major cause of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, which are the leading causes of death worldwide. Excessive nitric oxide production and inflammation result in dysfunctional vascular endothelial cells, which are critically involved in the initiation and progression of atherosclerosis. The present study aimed to identify a bioactive compound from Jerusalem artichoke leaves with anti-inflammatory activity that might prevent atherosclerosis. We isolated bioactive heliangin that inhibited NO production in LPS-induced macrophage-like RAW 264.7 cells. Heliangin suppressed ICAM-1, VCAM-1, E-selectin, and MCP-1 expression, as well as NF-κB and IκBα phosphorylation, in vascular endothelial cells stimulated with TNF-α. These results suggested that heliangin suppresses inflammation by inhibiting excessive NO production in macrophages and the expression of the factors leading to the development of atherosclerosis via the NF-κB signaling pathway in vascular endothelial cells. Therefore, heliangin in Jerusalem artichoke leaves could function in the prevention of atherosclerosis that is associated with heart attacks and strokes.

Quantitative analysis of organophosphate pesticides and dialkylphosphates in duplicate diet samples to identify potential sources of measured urinary dialkylphosphates in Japanese women.

Increased levels of dialkylphosphates (DAP) in maternal urine are associated with a variety of adverse developmental outcomes in children. Although urinary DAP levels are usually considered to be a marker of exposure to organophosphate (OP) pesticides, excretion of DAP may also increase by ingesting preformed DAP. To date, no study has quantitatively assessed the possible contribution of the dietary intake of preformed DAP and OP pesticides to urinary levels of DAP. Therefore, we aimed to estimate the levels of 6 DAPs and 84 OP pesticides in duplicate diet samples and urine samples collected from 73 women living in urban areas of Japan in 2018. DAP and OP pesticides were detected in 94% and 45% of diet samples, while DAP was detected in 100% of urinary samples, respectively. The average daily intake of preformed DAP was significantly higher than that of parent OP pesticides in our participants. Dimethylphosphate and diethylphosphate were predominant in the preformed DAP, and the estimated average daily intake of total amount of DAP was 78.3 nmol. Fruits and vegetables were the major dietary sources of DAP. Dietary intake of DAP was positively associated with urinary DAP levels, suggesting that a considerable amount of urinary DAP was derived from ingesting preformed DAP. Our results show that attributing urinary DAP levels exclusively to OP pesticide exposure would result in a substantial overestimation of the exposure level. Therefore, the urinary levels of DAP may not be suitable for evaluating OP pesticide exposure in the general urban population.

Functional difference of ATP-generating pathways in rooster sperm (Gallus gallus domesticus).

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production via glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation is essential for the maintenance of flagellar motility in sperm; however, the primary energy production pathways supporting fertilization vary among species. Inconsistency in thought exists regarding which pathways maintain ATP production and sperm motility in poultry. Glycolysis and mitochondrial oxidation contribute to flagellar motion in chicken sperm, but the relative dependence on these pathways for motility and penetrability into the inner perivitelline layer remains unclear. In the present study, there was use of various inhibitors and energy substrates to evaluate the relative contribution of anaerobic glycolysis and mitochondrial oxidation to chicken sperm flagellar motility, ATP production, and penetrating capacity through the perivitelline layer. Although both pathways contributed to these processes to varying extent, glucose was the primary substrate for sperm penetration into the inner perivitelline layer in chickens. Furthermore, results from metabolic stress analyses indicated that there was less perivitelline penetrability in response to pyruvate that was not due to changes in reactive oxygen species or intracellular pH. Overall, results from the present study indicate glycolysis and mitochondrial oxidation pathways have distinct functions in the flagellar motility and penetrability of the perivitelline membrane by rooster sperm. There, therefore, are new insights as a result of findings in the present study into the energy production system of sperm through which there is utilization of extracellular metabolic substrates for maintaining sperm fertilization capacity.

Effectiveness of a radiation protective device for anesthesiologists and transesophageal echocardiography operators in structural heart disease interventions.

In structural heart disease (SHD) interventions, the exposure of staff other than the first operator such as anesthesiologists and transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) operators to the radiation can also pose the risks of cancer and cataracts in the long term. This study was conducted to test our new radiation protective device (RPD) for anesthesiologists and TEE operators in SHD interventions. The RPD, which consists of a head side shield and a cradle shield, was mounted on a 0.25 mm Pb-equivalent unleaded radiation protection sheet on a self-made J-shaped acrylic table, and it was placed on the head side and cradle on the operating table. A CT human body phantom was placed on the operating table, and the C-arm was set in five directions: posteroanterior, right anterior oblique 30°, left anterior oblique 30°, caudal 30°, and cranial 30°. The ambient dose equivalent rate at the usual positions of the anesthesiologist and TEE operator were measured under a fluoroscopic sequence with and without the RPD, and the dose reduction rate was obtained. The height of each measurement point was set to 100, 130 or 160 cm. The reduction rates at the positions of the anesthesiologist and the TEE operator were 82.6-86.4% and 77.9-89.5% at the height of 100 cm, 48.5-68.4% and 83.3-91.0% at 130 cm, and 23.6-62.9% and 72.9-86.1% at 160 cm, respectively. The newly developed RPD can thus effectively reduce the radiation exposure of anesthesiologists and TEE operators during SHD interventions.

A highly sensitive quantification method for 12 plant toxins in human serum using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry with a quick solid-phase extraction technique.

We developed a highly sensitive quantification method using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) for 12 plant toxins in human serum. In this paper, we selected lycorine, galanthamine, protoveratrine A, protoveratrine B, veratramine, veratridine, jervine, cyclopamine, cevadine, α-solanine, α-chaconine, and solanidine as targeted analytes. The ADME column was utilized for LC separation and a Monolithic SPE column (MonoSpin® C18) for analyte extraction. The total time for SPE clean-up and LC/MS/MS analysis was completed within 30 min. The method validation results were as follows: the linearity (r2) of each calibration curve was over 0.99; the inter- and intra-day accuracies were 92.7 %-116 % and 91.6 %-106 %, respectively; and the inter- and intra-day precisions were below 14 % and 11 %, respectively. Also, the lower limits of detection and quantification were 0.0071-0.15 and 0.022-0.46 ng/mL, respectively, indicating the method's high sensitivity. Finally, to confirm its feasibility, our method was applied to two model samples: (1) commercially available human serum and (2) pseudo poisoning serum via dilution of mouse serum with human serum. We were able to quantify α-chaconine at 0.84 ± 0.02 ng/mL in the serum (Case 1) and protoveratrine A at 0.15 ± 0.032 ng/mL in the pseudo poisoning serum (Case 2), demonstrating our method's practicality. This is the first time that the 12 plant toxins in human serum were simultaneously quantitated. Our method can investigate accidental poisonings involving toxic plants, enabling prompt decisions on patient treatment.

[Reduction of Operator Exposure Radiation Dose and Evaluation of Image Quality Using Half Scan in CT Fluoroscopy].

In recent years, the number of examinations and treatments using computed tomography fluoroscopy (CTF) has been increasing, and there is concern about an increase in the exposure radiation dose of the operator. Use of half scan CTF can be expected to reduce the exposure radiation dose, but there is no report. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the exposure radiation dose at the operator's position and image quality when using a half scan CTF. The left side facing the gantry was the operator's position, and the ambient dose equivalent at 160 cm, 130 cm, and 100 cm from the floor was measured using an ionization chamber survey meter. The absorbed dose at the forceps holding position of the operator was measured using a fluorescent glass dosimeter with the forceps holding position 15 cm caudal from the scan center. The imaging conditions used a tube voltage of 120 kV and a tube current of 50 mA. Half scan CTF was performed by changing the center angle of the half scan on the console every 45°. As a result, the set angles were 135°and 90°at the operator's position, and 135°at the operator's forceps holding position. In addition, we evaluated the effect of half scan CTF on image quality. CTF images were collected with a cryogenic needle used for cryotherapy punctured in a water-equivalent self-made phantom. The profile curves of the obtained images were drawn and compared using analysis software to evaluate the effects of artifacts. Then, the SD of the CT value of the region of interest with and without the artifact was measured, and the relative artifact index was calculated and evaluated. Using the same image, CT value and SD were tested to evaluate noise. Half scan CTF had no effect on the image quality due to artifacts and noise.

Resveratrol and its dimers ε-viniferin and δ-viniferin in red wine protect vascular endothelial cells by a similar mechanism with different potency and efficacy.

Red wine compounds have been reported to reduce the rate of atherosclerosis by inducing nitric oxide (NO) production and antioxidant enzyme expression in vascular endothelial cells (VECs). The present study compared the effects of the three red wine compounds resveratrol and its dimers, ε-viniferin and δ-viniferin, on VECs function for the first time. Both 5 µM ε-viniferin and δ-viniferin, but not 5 µM resveratrol, significantly stimulated wound repair of VECs. Increased levels of wound repair induced by 10 and 20 µM ε-viniferin were significantly higher than those stimulated by 10 and 20 µM resveratrol, respectively. These stimulatory effects of the three compounds were suppressed by the NO synthase inhibitor L-NAME. When VECs were exposed to each compound, endothelial NO synthase was activated and the expression of sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) and HO-1 was induced. Addition of the SIRT1 and HO-1 inhibitors EX527 and ZnPPiX, respectively, suppressed wound repair stimulated by the three compounds, demonstrating that SIRT1 and HO-1 are involved in these wound repair processes. Furthermore, each compound induced the suppression of H2 O2 -dependent reduction of cell viability as well as the expression of the antioxidant enzyme catalase. These data suggest that not only resveratrol, but also its dimers, ε-viniferin and δ-viniferin, may be effective in preventing atherosclerosis by a similar molecular mechanism with different potency and efficacy.

Membrane raft-mediated regulation of glucose signaling pathway leading to acrosome reaction in chicken sperm†.

Despite knowledge that glucose metabolism is essential for the regulation of signaling cascades in the sperm that are pre-assembled into specific areas and function at multistage for fertilization, the physiological roles of glucose in avian sperm are poorly understood. Accumulated results of studies conducted in our laboratory and others indicate that sperm possess membrane microdomains, or membrane rafts, which play important roles in several processes, including the induction of acrosome reaction (AR). When characterizing proteomes associated with chicken sperm rafts, we observed marked enrichment of glucose transporter 3 (GLUT3). Here we show that glucose uptake is mediated by membrane rafts and stimulates AR induction by activating AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). Using a specific antibody, we observed that GLUT3 is localized to the entire flagellum and acrosome region and highly associated with membrane rafts. The addition of glucose stimulated AR in a dose-dependent manner without affecting sperm motility. AR and glucose uptake assays were performed using both inhibitors and activators, and demonstrated that glucose-dependent AR results from the activity of a glucose transporter located in membrane rafts and associated with AMPK. To better understand the mechanism of AMPK activation by glucose, we evaluated localization and phosphorylation status of AMPKα, showing that glucose uptake stimulates AMPKα phosphorylation, leading to its complete activation. Together, these results lead us to propose a novel mechanism by which glucose uptake stimulates the AMPK signaling pathway via membrane rafts, resulting in maximal acrosomal responsiveness in avian sperm as migrating upward to a fertilization site.

Angelica keiskei (Ashitaba) powder and its functional compound xanthoangelol prevent heat stress-induced impairment in sperm density and quality in mouse testes.

Recently, gradual decline in human sperm production has become a serious worldwide concern because it leads to increased rates of infertility. Endocrine disrupters, lifestyle changes, and varicocele, all of which elevate testicular temperature, are thought to be the main causes of this decline. The present study aimed to determine whether the dietary phytochemicals Angelica keiskei (Ashitaba) powder (57.5 mg/kg) and its functional component, xanthoangelol (3 mg/kg), can prevent heat stress-induced impairment in sperm density and quality in mice. Sperm parameters were analyzed 28 days after mice exposure to heat. Supplementation with Ashitaba powder completely prevented heat-induced impairment in sperm parameters, including densities of motile sperms and progressive sperms (> 25 µm/sec), and amplitude of lateral head displacement. Xanthoangelol did not exert a complete protective effect; nevertheless, it significantly prevented heat stress-induced reduction in most parameters. Both Ashitaba powder and xanthoangelol elevated the expression of the widely expressed heat shock proteins (HSPs) Hspa1a and Hsp40 and the antioxidant enzyme glutathione synthase in non-stressed testes. Ashitaba powder significantly prevented heat stress-induced reduction in the expression of Hspa1l and Hspa2, which are highly expressed in the testes and critical for fertility. Our results showed that Ashitaba powder and xanthoangelol protected testicular cells from heat stress, probably by elevating the levels of antioxidant enzymes and HSPs. Supplementation with dietary functional phytochemicals may help prevent heat stress-induced male infertility.

4-Hydroxyderricin inhibits osteoclast formation and accelerates osteoblast differentiation.

4-Hydroxyderricin (4-HD) is a major polyphenol of Angelica keiskei (Japanese name Ashitaba), exhibiting anti-allergic, anti-diabetic, anti-oxidant, and antitumor effects. The present study was designed to evaluate the effects of 4-HD on bone formation and maintenance by using cultured osteoclasts and osteoblasts. 4-HD did not affect cell proliferation of stromal ST2 cells and preosteoblast MC3T3-E1 cells at concentrations of 1-10 µM. This compound inhibited the formation of multinucleated osteoclasts from mouse splenic cells, and we identified a molecular pathway of osteoclast differentiation mediated by 4-HD, which led to inhibition of the expression of receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand and macrophage-colony stimulating factor in ST2 cells. By contrast, 4-HD enhanced indices of osteoblast differentiation, such as alkaline phosphatase activity and calcium deposition by osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells, at concentrations of 1-10 µM. Furthermore, we found that 4-HD at 1 µM attenuated H2O2 levels in MC3T3-E1 cells. Our findings indicate that 4-HD may have critical effects on bone formation and maintenance.

Involvement of the luteinizing hormone surge in the regulation of ovary and oviduct clock gene expression in mice.

Circadian dysfunction perturbs the female reproductive cycle. In particular, mice lacking the clock gene Bmal1 show severe infertility, implying that BMAL1 plays roles in ovulation and luteinization. Here, we examined temporal changes in clock gene expression in the ovary and oviduct before and during gonadotropin-induced follicular growth, ovulation, and luteinization in sexually immature mice. While the oviduct did not show a drastic change in clock gene expression, Bmal1 expression in the ovary was higher than that in control mice during the period from 4 to 16 hr after human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) administration. Bmal1 expression reached a maximum at 16 hr after hCG administration, when follicle luteinization occurred. In an interesting manner, administration of hCG to ex vivo-cultured oviduct triggered a shorter circadian period and inevitably resulted in phase advance. Together, our present data suggest that LH surge induces continuous expression of BMAL1 in the mouse ovary and modulates circadian phase in the mouse oviduct.

Reduction Method of Operator and Medical Staff Radiation Exposure in Balloon Pulmonary Angioplasty for Chronic Thromboembolic Pulmonary Hypertension.

The purpose of this study is to investigate a reduction method of radiation exposure for operator and medical staff in balloon pulmonary angioplasty (BPA) for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH). We devised a new radiation protection, which is U-shaped acrylic supporting table with 0.35 mmPb unleaded radiation protection sheet. A human phantom was put on the bed of cardiac angiography system [C-arm angulation: posteroanterior (PA), L-arm angulation: left anterior oblique (LAO) 60°]. The ambient equivalent dose rate was measured under fluoroscopy with and without three radiation protections: U-shaped acrylic supporting table with 0.35 mmPb unleaded radiation protection sheet, radiation protection for the lower body, and radiation protection for the upper body. With the three radiation protections, the ambient equivalent dose rate was decreased more than 99% at the height of 100 cm above the floor at the operator position (PA: from 186.2 µSv/h to 0.5 µSv/h, LAO 60°: from 350.4 µSv/h to 1.6 µSv/h). Ambient equivalent dose rate at the other points are also decreased effectively. The devised dose reduction method can reduce operator and medical staff radiation exposure effectively and be set up without interference for BPA procedure.

Species Identification of Pufferfish Products Using RAPD Analysis.

A simple and rapid method was developed to identify the source species of pufferfish products. Randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis was applied to identify 8 species of pufferfish. Commercial kits were used for DNA extraction and amplification. Simultaneous identification was possible by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of PCR products. Two primers were chosen based on the result of pre-examination with 40 primers, and the PCR conditions were optimized. Characteristic RAPD patterns were obtained for each pufferfish species. The developed method was applied to identify the source species of 26 pufferfish products. The results suggest that the developed method would be useful for verification of the labeled species of pufferfish products.

Role of Hydroxytyrosol-dependent Regulation of HO-1 Expression in Promoting Wound Healing of Vascular Endothelial Cells via Nrf2 De Novo Synthesis and Stabilization.

Hydroxytyrosol (HT), an olive plant (Olea europaea L.) polyphenol, has proven atheroprotective effects. We previously demonstrated that heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is involved in the HT dependent prevention of dysfunction induced by oxidative stress in vascular endothelial cells (VECs). Here, we further investigated the signaling pathway of HT-dependent HO-1 expression in VECs. HT dose- and time-dependently increased HO-1 mRNA and protein levels through the PI3K/Akt and ERK1/2 pathways. Cycloheximide and actinomycin D inhibited both increases, suggesting that HT-triggered HO-1 induction is transcriptionally regulated and that de novo protein synthesis is necessary for this HT effect. HT stimulated nuclear accumulation of nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2). This Nrf2 accumulation was blocked by actinomycin D and cycloheximide whereas HT in combination with the 26S proteasome inhibitor MG132 enhanced the accumulation. HT also extended the half-life of Nrf2 proteins by decelerating its turnover. Moreover, HO-1 inhibitor, ZnppIX and CO scavenger, hemoglobin impaired HT-dependent wound healing while CORM-2, a CO generator, accelerated wound closure. Together, these data demonstrate that HT upregulates HO-1 expression by stimulating the nuclear accumulation and stabilization of Nrf2, leading to the wound repair of VECs crucial in the prevention of atherosclerosis.