Suppressive effects of increasing mungbean density on growth and reproduction of junglerice and feather fingergrass.

Increased planting density can provide crops a competitive advantage over weeds. This study appraised the growth and seed production of two noxious grassy weeds, i.e. feather fingergrass (Chloris virgata SW.) and junglerice [Echinochloa colona (L.) Link] in response to different mungbean [Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek] densities (0, 82, 164, 242, and 328 plants m-2). A target-neighbourhood study was conducted using a completely randomized design with five replications, and there were two experimental runs in 2016-2017. The leaf, stem, and total aboveground biomass of C. virgata was 86, 59, and 76% greater than E. colona. For seed production, E. colona outnumbered C. virgata by producing 74% more seeds. Mungbean density-mediated suppression of height was more pronounced for E. colona compared with C. virgata during the first 42 days. The presence of 164-328 mungbean plants m-2 reduced the number of leaves of E. colona and C. virgata by 53-72% and 52-57%, respectively. The reduction in the inflorescence number caused by the highest mungbean density was higher for C. virgata than E. colona. C. virgata and E. colona growing with mungbean produced 81 and 79% fewer seeds per plant. An increase in mungbean density from 82 to 328 plants m-2 reduced the total aboveground biomass of C. virgata and E. colona by 45-63% and 44-67%, respectively. Increased mungbean plant density can suppress weed growth and seed production. Although increased crop density contributes to better weed management, supplemental weed control will be needed.

Correction: Effects of sorghum residue in presence of pre-emergence herbicides on emergence and biomass of Echinochloa colona and Chloris virgata.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0229817.].

Germination and seed persistence of Amaranthus retroflexus and Amaranthus viridis: Two emerging weeds in Australian cotton and other summer crops.

Redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus L.) and slender amaranth (Amaranthus viridis L.) are becoming problematic weeds in summer crops, including cotton in Australia. A series of laboratory and field experiments were performed to examine the germination ecology, and seed persistence of two populations of A. retroflexus and A. viridis collected from the Goondiwindi and Gatton regions of Australia. Both populations of A. retroflexus and A. viridis behaved similarly to different environmental conditions. Initial dormancy was observed in fresh seeds of both species; however, germination reached maximum after an after-ripening period of two months at room temperature. Light was not a mandatory prerequisite for germination of both species as they could germinate under complete darkness. Although both species showed very low germination at the alternating day/night temperature of 15/5 C, these species germinated more than 40% between ranges of 25/15 C to 35/25 C. Maximum germination of A. retroflexus (93%) and A. viridis (86%) was observed at 35/25 C and 30/20, respectively. Germination of A. retroflexus and A. viridis was completely inhibited at osmotic potentials of -1.0 and -0.6 MPa, respectively. No germination was observed in both species at the sodium chloride concentration of 200 mM. A. retroflexus seedling emergence (87%) was maximum from the seeds buried at 1 cm while the maximum germination of A. viridis (72%) was observed at the soil surface. No seedling emergence was observed from a burial depth of 8 cm for both species. In both species, seed persistence increased with increasing burial depth. At 24 months after seed placement, seed depletion ranged from 75% (10 cm depth) to 94% (soil surface) for A. retroflexus, and ranged from 79% to 94% for A. viridis, respectively. Information gained from this study will contribute to an integrated control programs for A. retroflexus and A. viridis.

Effect of emergence time on growth and fecundity of Rapistrum rugosum and Brassica tournefortii in the northern region of Australia.

Weeds from Brassicaceae family are a major threat in many crops including canola, chickpea, cotton and wheat. Rapistrum rugosum (L) All. and Brassica tournefortii Gouan. are two troublesome weeds in the northern region of Australia. In order to examine their phenology of these weeds, a pot study was conducted in 2018 at the Research Farm of the University of Queensland, Gatton campus with two populations sourced from high (Gatton) and medium (St George) rainfall areas of the northern grain region of Australia. Planting was carried out monthly from April to September, and the growth, flowering and seed production were evaluated. Maximum growth and seed production were observed in weeds planted in April, compared to other planting dates. Biomass of R. rugosum and B. tournefortii was reduced by 85% and 78%, respectively, as a result of the delay in planting from April to July. R. rugosum and B. tournefortii produced more than 13,000 and 3500 seeds plant-1, respectively, when planted in April and seed production was reduced by > 84% and > 76% when planted in July. No significant differences were observed between populations of both weeds for plant height, number of leaves and biomass, however, the medium rainfall population of R. rugosum produced more seeds than the high rainfall population when planted in April. The results of this study suggest that, although R. rugosum and B. tournefortii were able to emerge in a wider time frame, the growth and seed production were greatest when both weeds were planted in April and there was concomitant reduction in growth attributes when planted in the subsequent months, indicating that management of these weeds early in the cropping season is a prerequisite to population reduction and the mitigation of crop yield losses.

Response of glyphosate-resistant and susceptible biotypes of Echinochloa colona to low doses of glyphosate in different soil moisture conditions.

To evaluate the hormetic effect of glyphosate on Echinochloa colona, two pot studies were done in the screenhouse at the Gatton Campus, the University of Queensland, Australia. Glyphosate was sprayed at the 3-4 leaf stage using different doses [(0, 5, 10, 20, 40, 80 and 800 g a.e. ha-1) and (0, 2.5, 5, 10, 20 and 800 g a.e. ha-1)] in the first and second study, respectively. In the second study, two soil moistures (adequately-watered and water-stressed), and two E. colona biotypes, glyphosate-resistant and glyphosate-susceptible, were included. In both studies, plants that were treated with glyphosate at 2.5-40 g ha-1 grew taller and produced more leaves, tillers, inflorescences and seeds than the control treatment. In the first study, 5 g ha-1 glyphosate resulted in the maximum aboveground biomass (increase of 34% to 118%) compared with the control treatment. In the second study, the adequately-watered and glyphosate low dose treatments caused an increase in all the measured growth parameters for both biotypes. For example, total dry biomass was increased by 64% and 54% at 5 g ha-1 in the adequately-watered treatments for the resistant and susceptible biotypes, respectively, compared with the control treatment. All measured traits tended to decrease with increasing water stress and the stimulative growth of low doses of glyphosate could not compensate for the water stress effect. The results of both studies showed a hormetic effect of low doses of glyphosate on E. colona biotypes and such growth stimulation was significant in the range of 5 to 10 g ha-1 glyphosate. Water availability was found to be effective in modulating the stimulatory outcomes of glyphosate-induced hormesis. No significant difference was observed between the resistant and susceptible biotypes for hormesis phenomenon. The study showed the importance of precise herbicide application for suppressing weed growth and herbicide resistance evolution.

Effects of sorghum residue in presence of pre-emergence herbicides on emergence and biomass of Echinochloa colona and Chloris virgata.

In conservation agriculture systems, farmers gain many advantages from retaining crop residue on the soil surface, but crop residue retention in these systems may intervene with the activity of pre-emergence herbicides. A pot study was conducted to evaluate the effect of different rates of pre-emergence herbicides [imazethapyr (100 and 150 g a. i. ha-1), isoxaflutole (100 and 200 g a. i. ha-1), metolachlor (1.5 and 2.25 kg a. i. ha-1), pendimethalin (2.25 and 3.38 kg a. i. ha-1) and prosulfocarb + metolachlor (2.5 and 3.75 kg a. i. ha-1)] on seedling emergence and biomass of Echinochloa colona and Chloris virgata when applied in the presence of sorghum residue at rates equivalent to (0, 3 and 6 t ha-1). When seeds of E. colona and C. virgata were not covered with sorghum residue, the seedling emergence and biomass of both weeds was inhibited by 93-100% and 56-100%, respectively, with the application (both rates) of isoxaflutole, metolachlor, pendimethalin and prosulfocarb + metolachlor. Using sorghum residue resulted in lower herbicide efficacy on both weeds. At 3 t ha-1 sorghum residue, E. colona emergence and biomass reduced by 38-100% and 30-100%, respectively, with application of isoxaflutole, metolachlor and pendimethalin (both rates) in comparison with the no-herbicide treatment. Similarly, the emergence and biomass of C. virgata was also reduced by 92-100% and 25-100%, respectively. The results of this study suggest that crop residue may influence efficacy of commonly used pre-emergence herbicides and that the amount of crop residue on the soil surface should be adjusted according to the nature of the pre-emergence herbicides to achieve adequate weed control.

The response of glyphosate-resistant and glyphosate-susceptible biotypes of Echinochloa colona to carbon dioxide, soil moisture and glyphosate.

Physiological and growth responses of two Australian Echinochloa colona biotypes (glyphosate-resistant and susceptible, produced from a single population) to different concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) (ambient ~450 ppm and elevated ~750 ppm) and soil moisture (well-watered and water-stressed) were analyzed. Elevated CO2 and well-watered conditions resulted in E. colona plants with greater biomass, height and numbers of tillers and leaves in both biotypes; however, no significant response was observed for seed production or the amount of photosynthesis pigments with increasing CO2 at both soil moisture levels. In addition, water availability was more influential for growth than CO2 concentration. The mean shoot biomass of the susceptible biotype under elevated CO2 and well-watered conditions was significantly greater than the resistant biotype. Although the susceptible biotype showed more vegetative and reproductive growth than the resistant biotype, no significant difference was observed for seed production between the biotypes in the water-stressed condition. In a second experiment, different doses of glyphosate (0, 180, 360, 720 and 1440 g a.e ha-1) were applied to both biotypes grown at two soil moisture levels (well-watered and water-stressed). In the water-stressed condition, glyphosate efficacy was decreased in both biotypes. The resistant biotype in the well-watered condition had only 19% survival at 1440 g ha-1 glyphosate (double the recommended rate), but this value increased in the water-stressed condition by 62%. Our study suggests that future climate change can affect the physiological and growth processes of weeds and their responses to herbicides. Knowledge of their adapting behaviors will be critical to weed management strategies.