Estimating the cost of diagnosing HIV at birth in Lesotho.

BACKGROUND: Infants with HIV infection, particularly those infected in utero, who do not receive antiretroviral therapy (ART) have high mortality in the first year of life. Virologic diagnostic testing is recommended by the World Health Organization between ages 4 and 6 weeks after birth. However, adding very early infant diagnosis (VEID) testing at birth has been suggested to enable earlier diagnosis and rapid treatment of in utero infection. We assessed the costs of adding VEID to the standard 6-week testing in Lesotho where coverage of PMTCT services is nearly universal. METHODS: Retrospective cost data were collected at eight health-care facilities in three districts participating in an observational prospective study that included birth testing as well as at the National Reference Laboratory in Lesotho, to investigate the cost-per-infection identified. Extrapolating to the national level, it was possible to estimate the impact of VEID on the identification of HIV-infected infants. RESULTS: The unit cost-per-VEID test in Lesotho in 2015 was $40.50. Major cost drivers were supplies/commodities (46%) and clinical labor (22%). In 2015, 66.3% of cohort study infants born at study facilities underwent VEID; one out of 199 infants had a positive HIV DNA PCR test at birth (0.5% potential in utero infection), yielding a cost of $8,060 per HIV-positive infant identified. Sensitivity analysis showed costs based on Lesotho costing data ranged from $810 to $16,194 per-infected child with varying in utero infection rates from 5% and 0.25%, respectively. With 11,157 HIV-exposed births nationally from pregnant women on PMTCT, 66.3% VEID coverage, and 0.5% in utero infection, 37 infants infected with HIV could have been identified at birth in 2015 and 8 early infant deaths potentially averted with immediate ART compared with waiting for 6-week testing. CONCLUSION: If Lesotho costing data from this pilot study were applied to different epidemic circumstances, the cost-per-infected child identified by adding VEID birth testing to standard 6-week testing was lowest when in utero infection rates were high (when HIV prevalence is high and PMTCT coverage is low).

Use of antiretrovirals in HIV-infected children in a tuberculosis prevention trial: IMPAACT P1041.

SETTING: International Maternal Pediatric Adolescent AIDS Clinical Trials (IMPAACT) P1041, a tuberculosis (TB) prevention trial conducted among children enrolled from 2004 to 2008 during South Africa's roll-out of combination antiretroviral therapy (ART). OBJECTIVE: To estimate TB incidence and mortality and the effect of ART. DESIGN: Children were pre-screened to exclude TB disease and exposure, actively screened 3-monthly for TB exposure and symptoms, and provided post-exposure isoniazid prophylaxis therapy (IPT). TB diagnoses were definite, probable, or possible, and mortality all-cause. Testing was at the 5% significance level. RESULTS: In 539 children (aged 3-4 months) followed up for a median of 74 weeks (interquartile range [IQR] 48-116), incidence/100 person-years (py) was 10.67 (95%CI 8.47-13.26) for any TB and 2.89 (95%CI 1.85-4.31) for definite/probable TB. Any TB incidence was respectively 9.39, 13.59, and 9.83/100 py before, <180 days after, and 180 days after ART initiation. Adjusted analysis showed a non-significant increase in any TB (HR 1.32, 95%CI 0.71-2.52, P = 0.38) and a significant reduction in mortality (HR 0.39, 95%CI 0.17-0.82, P = 0.017) following ART initiation. CONCLUSIONS: ART reduced mortality but not TB incidence in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected children in IMPAACT P1041, possibly attributable to active screening for TB exposure and symptoms with post-exposure IPT. Research into this as a strategy for TB prevention in high HIV-TB burden settings may be warranted.

Discordance between CD4 cell count and CD4 cell percentage: implications for when to start antiretroviral therapy in HIV-1 infected children.

OBJECTIVE: Antiretroviral therapy (ART) guidelines for HIV-1-infected children specify both absolute CD4 cell count and CD4 percentage thresholds at which consideration should be given to initiating ART. This leads to clinical dilemma when one marker is below the threshold, whereas the other is above. DESIGN: Data were obtained on a large group of children followed longitudinally in trials and cohort studies in Europe and the USA. Follow-up was censored 6 months after the start of any antiretroviral drug other than zidovudine monotherapy. METHODS: Discordance between CD4 cell count and percentage was defined in relation to ART initiation thresholds in World Health Organization (WHO) and European paediatric treatment guidelines. The relative prognostic value of CD4 cell count and percentage for progression to AIDS/death was investigated using time-updated Cox proportional hazards models, stratified by age. RESULTS: Among 3345 children, with a total of 21,815 pairs of CD4 measurements analysed, 980 developed AIDS and/or died after a median follow-up of 1.7 years. Over one-half of children had discordant values of CD4 cell markers at the first visit when one or both treatment thresholds were crossed and approximately one-third had the same pattern of discordance at a subsequent measurement. Models suggested that CD4 percentage had little or no prognostic value over and above that contained in CD4 cell count, irrespective of age. CONCLUSIONS: More emphasis should be placed on CD4 cell count than on CD4 percentage in deciding when to start ART in HIV-1-infected children.

Treatment interruption after pregnancy: effects on disease progression and laboratory findings.

OBJECTIVE: To assess clinical progression and inflammatory markers among women stopping or continuing antiretroviral therapy (ART) after pregnancy. METHODS: ART-naïve women with CD4+ lymphocyte counts >350 cells/uL initiating ART during pregnancy had clinical events and laboratory markers compared over one year postpartum between those stopping (n = 59) or continuing (n = 147) ART. RESULTS: Slopes in CD4 count and HIV RNA did not differ between groups overall and in subsets of ZDV or combination therapy. The hazard ratio (HR) of a new class B event was 2.09 (95% CI 0.79-5.58) among women stopping ART, 1.24 (0.31-4.95) in those stopping ZDV, and 2.93 (0.64-13.36) among those stopping combination therapy. Women stopping ART had increased immune activation. No significant differences were seen in C-reactive protein, lipids, leptin, or interleukin-6. CONCLUSIONS: While changes in CD4 and HIV RNA levels over one year were similar between women stopping or continuing ART postpartum, higher immune activation among women stopping therapy requires further study.

Pharmacokinetics and safety of nelfinavir when used in combination with zidovudine and lamivudine in HIV-infected pregnant women: Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group (PACTG) Protocol 353.

BACKGROUND: Combination antiretroviral regimens including nelfinavir (NFV) are commonly used in pregnancy. We studied the safety, antiviral effect, and pharmacokinetics of NFV and its M8 metabolite with two dosing regimens in combination with zidovudine (ZDV) and lamivudine (3TC) in HIV-infected pregnant women. METHOD: HIV-infected pregnant women between 14 and 34 weeks gestation received NFV (Cohort 1: 750 mg tid, n = 10; Cohort 2: 1250 mg bid, n = 23) with ZDV and 3TC. Serial blood sampling for NFV concentrations was performed antepartum (AP) and 6 weeks postpartum (PP). Maternal and cord blood samples were also obtained at delivery. NFV and M8 levels were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. The pharmacokinetic (PK) target was an extrapolated NFV AUC0-24 > 30 mug . h/mL. Mothers were followed frequently for potential clinical and laboratory toxicity. RESULTS: Overall, NFV in combination with ZDV and 3TC was well tolerated. The PK target was met in 3/8 AP and 5/7 PP in Cohort 1 and 17/21 AP and 16/17 PP in Cohort 2. When Cohort 2 NFV PK parameters AP and PP were compared, median Cmax (3.90 microg/mL vs. 5.01 microg/mL, p < .05) and AUC0-24 (56.6 vs. 86.8 microg . h/mL, p < .05) were increased PP and oral clearance (Cl/F; 44.2 vs. 28.8 L/h, p < .05) was decreased PP. The average M8/NFV ratio was increased PP compared to AP (0.085 vs. 0.29, p < .001). Placental transfer of NFV was low with a median cord blood:maternal plasma ratio at delivery of 0.05. Maternal mean CD4+ T cell counts increased significantly and plasma HIV-1 RNA levels decreased from entry to delivery and 6 to 12 weeks postpartum. CONCLUSION: NFV used in combination with ZDV and 3TC was well tolerated in pregnant HIV-infected women and produced a significant improvement in HIV disease parameters. NFV drug exposure is inadequate in most pregnant women receiving 750 mg tid but is much improved with 1250 mg bid. NFV crosses the placenta poorly. The AP increase in NFV oral clearance and decrease in M8/NFV ratio suggest that CYP3A activity increases relative to CYP2C19 activity during pregnancy.

Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of efavirenz and nelfinavir in HIV-infected children participating in an area-under-the-curve controlled trial.

Fifty human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected children participated in an area-under-the plasma concentration-time curve (AUC)-controlled trial of efavirenz and nelfinavir. Pharmacokinetic evaluations were performed at weeks 2, 6, and 56. Efavirenz and nelfinavir doses were adjusted to achieve AUC values of 60-120 and > or = 10 mg h/l, respectively. Thirty-seven (74%) children met the efavirenz target and 41 (82%) the nelfinavir by week 10. Children with AUC values for both drugs above the first quartile were more likely to reach < 400 copies/ml of HIV RNA at week 8. Efavirenz and nelfinavir oral clearance increased 37 and 62% from weeks 2 to 56, respectively, in 34 children who continued on therapy at week 56. AUC values at week 56 were not different between children who did or did not have HIV RNA < 400 copies/ml. Dose adjustment to achieve specific AUC values in these children reduced the risk of suboptimal exposure and achieved high rates of virologic suppression.

Impact of GB virus type C infection on mother-to-child HIV transmission in the Women and Infants Transmission Study Cohort.

BACKGROUND: GB virus type C (GBV-C) viraemia is associated with a beneficial outcome in HIV-infected individuals in several though not all studies. GBV-C viraemia was examined in a matched case-control study of 133 HIV-infected pregnant women who transmitted HIV to their infants ('cases') and 266 non-transmitting controls. METHODS: HIV-infected children and controls were pair-matched for high-risk delivery, race and year of delivery. GBV-C status was determined in maternal plasma samples obtained at or within 3 months of delivery. RESULTS: Pregnant women with GBV-C viraemia (11% of those studied) had lower HIV RNA levels (P=0.01) and higher CD4 percentages (P=0.0006) [corrected] than women without GBV-C. A trend towards decreased mother-to-child transmission in the multivariate analysis was observed among GBV-C viraemic women delivering after highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) became available [odds ratio (OR) 0.30, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.08-1.05; P=0.06], but not in women delivering prior to the widespread use of HAART. CONCLUSIONS: GBV-C viraemia was associated with a beneficial effect on CD4 percentage and HIV RNA level in these pregnant women, and was also associated with a trend towards reduced risk of mother-to-child HIV transmission among women after HAART became available. Further studies with larger or multiple cohorts are necessary to assess possible benefits in this population.

Pharmacokinetics of oral zidovudine administered during labour: a preliminary study.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to determine whether oral zidovudine (ZDV) given during labour would provide a similar systemic exposure to the established intravenous regimen used to prevent mother-to-child transmission in HIV-infected pregnant women. METHODS: ZDV pharmacokinetic parameters following oral administration during labour were determined in 10 HIV-infected pregnant women in active labour. All subjects were converted to intravenous ZDV prior to delivery. RESULTS: In cohort 1 (n=6), subjects received 300 mg oral ZDV every 3 h for three doses. Oral therapy was well tolerated but plasma ZDV concentrations were substantially lower than previously reported with continuous intravenous therapy. Based on the pharmacokinetic results from cohort 1, women in cohort 2 (n=4) received an initial 600 mg dose followed by two 400 mg doses every 3 h. ZDV area under the curve and concentrations in cohort 2 increased approximately in proportion to the increase in dose but varied 6-7-fold. In both cohorts, ZDV pharmacokinetic parameters suggested erratic absorption. CONCLUSIONS: While ZDV exposure improved with the increased dosing regimen, our sample size was small and larger studies are needed to establish whether oral ZDV administration during labour can consistently provide equivalent exposure to intravenous administration.

Alternatives to HIV-1 RNA concentration and CD4 count to predict mortality in HIV-1-infected children in resource-poor settings.

Cheaper, simpler alternatives to CD4 lymphocyte count and HIV-1 RNA detection for assessing the prognosis of HIV-1 infection are needed for resource-poor settings. However, little is known about the predictive value of alternative assays, in particular in children. We assessed the prognostic value of total lymphocyte count, immune complex-dissociated p24 antigen, white blood cell count, packed-cell volume (haematocrit), and serum albumin for mortality in 376 HIV-1-infected, mainly African-American or Hispanic children enrolled during March, 1988 to January, 1991. In a Cox proportional hazards model, including all assay-alternatives to CD4 and RNA, total lymphocyte count (p<0.0001) and serum albumin (p=0.0107) independently predicted mortality. Further assessment of these markers is warranted in resource-poor settings.

Pharmacokinetics of nelfinavir in human immunodeficiency virus-infected infants.

BACKGROUND: Nelfinavir dosed at approximately 20 to 30 mg/kg three times a day (TID) in older children provides exposure similar to 750 mg TID in adults. However, the pharmacokinetics (PK) of nelfinavir in infants who are < 2 years of age is not well-described. The objective of this study was to determine the pharmacokinetics of nelfinavir in infants < 2 years of age. METHODS: Nelfinavir concentrations were evaluated in 22 HIV-infected infants between 15 days and 2 years of age receiving nelfinavir as part of Pediatric ACTG Study 356. Nelfinavir therapy was initiated at approximately 25 mg/kg TID (n = 18) or approximately 55 mg/kg twice a day (n = 4) and given in combination with nevirapine, stavudine and lamivudine. PK samples were obtained predose and 1.5 and 4 h postdose at approximately 6-month intervals. Eight infants (all < or = 3 months of age) also had intensive PK samples collected at Week 1. RESULTS: The median apparent clearance in the infants with intensive pharmacokinetic sampling was 2.7 liters/h/kg (range, 1.8 to > or = 10) and was similar between twice a day and TID dosing cohorts. Overall nelfinavir concentrations at all collection times were lower in these infants than previously reported in older pediatric patients. CONCLUSIONS: Nelfinavir concentrations in infants are highly variable and lower than those seen in adult or older pediatric populations receiving labeled dosing. Therefore it is necessary to further evaluate nelfinavir safety, effectiveness and pharmacokinetics at higher doses than used among other pediatric populations.

Pharmacokinetics of saquinavir-SGC in HIV-infected pregnant women.

PURPOSE: To evaluate saquinavir (SQV) pharmacokinetics, tolerance, and safety in 10 HIV-infected pregnant women between 14-32 weeks gestation. METHOD: This was a phase I, prospective, area-under-the-curve (AUC) targeted study. Antepartum treatment consisted of SQV 1200 mg tid, lamivudine 150 mg bid, and zidovudine 200 mg tid. The SQV targeted exposure was an 8-hour AUC (AUC(8)) of 3000 ng. h/mL; the study was to be halted if the first 4 participants did not achieve this AUC(8). Cord blood and plasma samples were collected in neonates at birth. RESULTS: Four women completed the SQV pharmacokinetic assessments. Exposure in all 4 patients was below the target AUC(8). Median (range) AUC(8) and trough (C8H) were 1672 (738-2614) ng. h/mL and 60 (<15-332) ng/mL, respectively. Oral clearance (CL/F) was 9.3 (5.1-16.6) L/h/kg and C(max) was 599 (177-953) ng/mL. Cord and neonate plasma concentrations were mostly undetectable; 1 of 5 infants was HIV-infected at 24 weeks. CONCLUSION: These data suggest highly variable SQV pharmacokinetics in pregnant women, and exposure at 1200 mg tid may not be adequate for longer term therapy; both the AUC(8) and C8H were considerably below average. Because ritonavir has been shown to significantly increase SQV concentrations, this combination should be further explored in this population.

Selection and fading of resistance mutations in women and infants receiving nevirapine to prevent HIV-1 vertical transmission (HIVNET 012).

OBJECTIVE: To examine the emergence and fading of NVP resistance (NVP(R)) mutations in HIV-1-infected Ugandan women and infants who received single dose NVP to prevent HIV-1 vertical transmission. DESIGN: We examined NVP(R) in women and infants who received NVP in the HIVNET 012 clinical trial, including 41 out of 48 women with infected infants, 70 randomly-selected women with uninfected infants, and 33 out of 49 infected infants. METHODS: Plasma HIV-1 was analyzed using the Applied Biosystems ViroSeq HIV-1 Genotyping System. RESULTS: NVP(R) mutations were detected in 21 out of 111 (19%) women tested 6-8 weeks after delivery. The rate of NVP(R) was similar among women whose infants were or were not HIV-1 infected. K103N was the most common mutation detected. NVP(R) mutations faded from detection within 12-24 months in all 11 evaluable women. High baseline viral load and low baseline CD4 cell count were associated with development of NVP(R). NVP(R) mutations were detected in 11 out of 24 (46%) evaluable infants who were infected by 6-8 weeks of age. The most common NVP(R) mutation detected in infants was Y181C. Those mutations faded from detection by 12 months of age in all seven evaluable infants. Of nine evaluable infants with late HIV-1 infection, only one had evidence of NVP(R). CONCLUSIONS: NVP(R) was detected more frequently in infants than women following NVP prophylaxis, and different patterns of NVP(R) mutations were detected in women versus infants. NVP(R) was detected infrequently in infants with late HIV-1 infection. NVP-resistant HIV-1 faded from detection in women and infants over time.

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) gp120-specific antibodies in neonates receiving an HIV-1 recombinant gp120 vaccine.

Infants born to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-infected mothers were immunized at birth and at ages 4, 12, and 20 weeks with low-, medium-, or high-dose recombinant gp120 vaccine with MF59 adjuvant (HIV-1(SF-2); n=52) or with MF59 alone as a placebo (n=9). An accelerated schedule (birth and ages 2, 8, and 20 weeks) was used for an additional 10 infants receiving the defined optimal dose and for 3 infants receiving placebo. At 24 weeks, anti-gp120 ELISA titers were greater for vaccine-immunized than for placebo-immunized infants on both schedules, and 87% of vaccinees had a vaccine-induced antibody response. At 12 weeks, antibody titers of infants on the accelerated vaccine schedule exceeded those of infants receiving placebo (4949 vs. 551; P=.01), and 63% of the vaccinees met the response criteria. Thus, an accelerated schedule of gp120 vaccinations generated an antibody response to HIV-1 envelope distinct from transplacental maternal antibody by age 12 weeks. These results provide support for further studies of vaccine strategies to prevent mother-to-infant HIV-1 transmission.

Population pharmacokinetics of dapsone in children with human immunodeficiency virus infection.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies of dapsone pharmacokinetics in children have been too small to allow assessment of the relationships between dapsone pharmacokinetic parameters and patient characteristics or markers of efficacy and toxicity. METHODS: We used population analysis to estimate dapsone pharmacokinetic parameters in children participating in a phase I/II study of daily and weekly dapsone in children with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. With use of the program NONMEM and a 1-compartment open model, the influence of demographic and clinical characteristics on oral clearance (CL/F) and oral volume of distribution (V/F) were examined. Measures of drug exposure (area under the concentration-time curve [AUC] and predicted concentrations just before and 2 hours after administration) were estimated for each patient and correlated with markers of efficacy and toxicity. RESULTS: Sixty children (median age, 3 years; age range, 2 months to 12 years) contributed 412 dapsone concentrations collected after 175 study doses. Final parameter estimates were 1.40 L/kg for V/F, 0.0283 L/kg/h for CL/F, and 2.66 for the absorption rate constant. Of the clinical characteristics evaluated, dapsone CL/F was significantly increased by 50% in children taking rifabutin, by 39% in black children, and by 38% in children younger than 2 years old. Although no significant correlations were found between any dapsone exposure parameter and markers of toxicity, increased AUC was associated with a decreased risk of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP). CONCLUSION: Ethnicity, age, and concomitant rifabutin use were associated with dapsone CL/F, with more rapid clearance observed in black children, children younger than 2 years old, and children receiving rifabutin. Dapsone pharmacokinetic parameters were not associated with toxicity, but higher dapsone AUC was associated with decreased risk of PCP. Monitoring of serum dapsone levels may be needed for optimal management of dapsone for PCP prophylaxis in children.

Safety of 2 recombinant human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) envelope vaccines in neonates born to HIV-1-infected women.

To determine the safety of 2 candidate vaccines against human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), a randomized, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial compared low, medium, and high doses of the vaccines or an adjuvant among infants born to HIV-infected women. No local or systemic reactions of grade 2 or greater were reported 48 h after the subjects underwent immunization. Grade 3 or 4 chemistry toxicities occurred in 5 (3%) and grade 3 or 4 hematologic toxicities in 17 (11%) of 154 vaccinated subjects (not significantly different from 29 adjuvant recipients). CD4(+) cell percentages of < or = 20% occurred at least once in 9 vaccinated subjects and 1 control subject. Sustained CD4(+) cell percentages of < or = 20% occurred in 4 HIV-infected children. Fourteen infants (8%) were confirmed to be HIV-infected; median CD4(+) cell counts among these children were 2074, 1674, 1584, and 821 cells/mm(3) at birth and weeks 24, 52, and 104, respectively. Thus, both vaccines were safe and well tolerated in neonates, and there was no evidence of accelerated immunologic decline in HIV-infected infants.

Perinatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 by pregnant women with RNA virus loads <1000 copies/ml.

In a collaboration of 7 European and United States prospective studies, 44 cases of vertical human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) transmission were identified among 1202 women with RNA virus loads <1000 copies/mL at delivery or at the measurement closest to delivery. For mothers receiving antiretroviral treatment during pregnancy or at the time of delivery (or both), there was a 1.0% transmission rate (8 of 834; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.4%-1.9%), compared with 9.8% (36 of 368; 95% CI, 7.0%-13.4%) for untreated mothers (risk ratio, 0.10; 95% CI, 0.05-0.21). In multivariate analysis adjusting for study, transmission was lower with antiretroviral treatment (odds ratio [OR], 0.10; P<.001), cesarean section (OR, 0.30; P=.022), greater birth weight (P=.003), and higher CD4 cell count (P=.039). In 12 of 44 cases, multiple RNA measurements were obtained during pregnancy or at the time of delivery or within 4 months after giving birth; in 10 of the 12 cases, the geometric mean virus load was >500 copies/mL. Perinatal HIV-1 transmission occurs in only 1% of treated women with RNA virus loads <1000 copies/mL and may be almost eliminated with antiretroviral prophylaxis accompanied by suppression of maternal viremia.

Patterns of plasma human immunodeficiency virus type 1 RNA response to highly active antiretroviral therapy in infected children.

This study examined the rate of decline in plasma human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) RNA levels to <400 and <50 copies/mL in children receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) consisting of efavirenz, nelfinavir, and 1 or 2 nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitors. Children receiving HAART achieved a plasma HIV-1 RNA level <400 copies/mL by a median of 4 weeks after initiation of therapy and a decline to <50 copies/mL by 20 weeks. Baseline plasma HIV-1 RNA levels affected the likelihood of achieving potent and sustained virus suppression, and children whose CD4 lymphocyte counts increased >70 cells/microL by 20 weeks on therapy were more likely to achieve durable virological and immunological benefit. These data provide time frames for virus suppression after the initiation of HAART that should be useful in evaluating the potential efficacy and durability of response of newly instituted combination antiretroviral therapy in HIV-1-infected children.

Identification of the K103N resistance mutation in Ugandan women receiving nevirapine to prevent HIV-1 vertical transmission.

OBJECTIVE: A recent trial in Uganda demonstrated that a simple, inexpensive regimen of nevirapine (NVP) prophylaxis can dramatically reduce HIV-1 vertical transmission risk. In this regimen, women receive a single dose of NVP at the onset of labor and infants receive a single dose of NVP within 72 h of birth. The objective of this study was to determine whether HIV-1 variants with NVP resistance mutations were selected in Ugandan women who received this regimen in the Phase I/II trial HIVNET 006. METHODS: Reverse transcriptase (RT) sequences from plasma HIV-1 were analyzed from 15 women 6 weeks after NVP dosing. RT sequences from plasma collected prior to NVP dosing were also analyzed. RESULTS: The K103N NVP resistance mutation was detected 6 weeks after NVP administration in three (20%) out of 15 women (95% confidence interval, 0-40%). Pre-dose samples were available from two of the three women; both pre-dose samples lacked the mutation. Other NVP resistance mutations were absent from all 15 women. Women with the K103N mutation had a longer median NVP elimination half-life, decreased median oral clearance, and increased median area under the concentration time curve than those without the mutation. An evaluable sample was obtained from one of these three women 33 months after delivery; the K103N mutation was not detected in that sample. CONCLUSIONS: This preliminary study demonstrates that HIV-1 with the RT K103N mutation can be detected in some Ugandan women following a single dose of NVP. This suggests that non-nucleoside RT inhibitor resistance may be selected in some people by single dose NVP prophylaxis. Pharmacokinetic data suggested that a more prolonged exposure to NVP after dosing may favor selection of NVP-resistant HIV-1.

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1 antibodies in perinatal HIV-1 infection: association with human HIV-1 transmission, infection, and disease progression. For the Women and Infants Transmission Study.

Anti -human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1 antibodies in 242 pregnant women and 238 infants were measured at birth and at 1, 2, 4, and 6 months after birth, to estimate their association with perinatal transmission and infant disease progression. Maternal anti-p24 (P=.01) and anti-gp120 (P=.04) antibodies were inversely associated with vertical transmission rates, independent of maternal percentage of CD4 cells, hard drug use, duration of ruptured membranes, serum albumin levels, serum vitamin A levels, and quantitative HIV-1 peripheral mononuclear blood cell culture, but not with maternal plasma immune complex dissociated p24 or HIV-1 RNA copy number, both of which were highly correlated with antibodies. From ages 1-2 months, anti-gp120, -gp41, -p31, and -p66 decayed to a greater extent in infected than in uninfected infants. Infected infants produced anti-p24 antibody by age 2 months, anti-p17 by 4 months, and anti-p41 and anti-gp120 by 6 months. As early as birth, infants with rapid disease progression had lower levels of anti-p24 than did infants whose disease did not rapidly progress, but not independently of HIV-1 RNA levels.