Anatomical and Hemodynamic Characterization of Totally Artificial Hearts.

We characterize the anatomy and function of never before studied total artificial hearts (TAHs) using established methods for testing mechanical circulatory support (MCS) devices. A historical review of TAHs is also presented to aid in benchmarking performance metrics. Six TAHs, ranging from spooky Halloween beating hearts to a cute colorful plush heart, were imaged, instrumented (mock flow loops) to measure their pressure, volume, and flow, and qualitatively evaluated by 3rd party cardiac surgeons for anatomical accuracy and surgical considerations. Imaging of Claw, Beating, and Frankenstein TAHs revealed internal motors, circuit boards, and speakers. Gummy TAH was ranked favorite TAH for tactile realism, while Frankenstein TAH had the most favorable audible/visual indicators, including an illuminated Jacob's Ladder. Beating TAH demonstrated superior pulsatile hemodynamic performance compared to Claw TAH (16mL vs 1.3mL stroke volume). Light Up TAH and Gummy TAH functioned only as passive compliance chambers. Cute TAH rapidly exsanguinated due to its porosity (-3.0 L/min flow). These TAHs demonstrated a wide range of anatomical accuracy, surgeon appeal, unique features, and hemodynamic performance. While Claw TAH and Beating TAH successfully generated a modicum of pulsatility, we recommend the clinical community continue to support pre-clinical development of emerging or use of clinically-approved TAHs.

Feasibility Testing of the RT Cardiac Systems Percutaneous Mechanical Circulatory Support Device.

RT Cardiac Systems (RTCS, Raleigh, NC) is developing an intravascular percutaneous mechanical circulatory support (pMCS) device drive system for use during high-risk percutaneous coronary intervention and emergent cardiogenic shock. The proprietary pMCS device (US patent 10,780,206) consists of a miniaturized axial flow pump with an integrated motor connected via a short flexible drive system. This novel flexible drive system creates a flexible pump that is advantageous for percutaneous placement and conforming to anatomy. This design also has the benefit of not requiring a continuous external lubrication source. In this article, we present engineering development and feasibility testing of the prototype pMCS system. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling was performed to evaluate candidate blade set designs (impeller leading and trailing edges, diffuser) and predict hydrodynamic performance and hemolysis risk. Bench testing of candidate lip seal designs (radial interference, durometer, and seal angle) was evaluated for leak rate. Two 16Fr prototype devices were then fabricated and tested in a static mock flow loop. Experimental testing demonstrated 3 L/min flow against 110 mmHg and 4 L/min flow against 80 mmHg, which matched the CFD-predicted hydrodynamic performance. These results demonstrate feasibility of the engineering design and performance of the prototype devices.

Feasibility testing of the Inspired Therapeutics NeoMate mechanical circulatory support system for neonates and infants.

Inspired Therapeutics (Merritt Island, FL) is developing a mechanical circulatory support (MCS) system designed as a single driver with interchangeable, extracorporeal, magnetically levitated pumps. The NeoMate system design features an integrated centrifugal rotary pump, motor, and controller that will be housed in a single compact unit. Conceptually, the primary innovation of this technology will be the combination of disposable, low-cost pumps for use with a single, multi-functional, universal controller to support multiple pediatric cardiopulmonary indications. In response to the paucity of clinically available pediatric devices, Inspired Therapeutics is specifically targeting the underserved neonate and infant heart failure (HF) patient population first. In this article, we present the development of the prototype Inspired Therapeutics NeoMate System for pediatric left ventricular assist device (LVAD) support, and feasibility testing in static mock flow loops (H-Q curves), dynamic mock flow loops (hemodynamics), and in an acute healthy ovine model (hemodynamics and clinical applicability). The resultant hydrodynamic and hemodynamic data demonstrated the ability of this prototype pediatric LVAD and universal controller to function over a range of rotary pump speeds (500-6000 RPM), to provide pump flow rates of up to 2.6 L/min, and to volume unload the left ventricle in acute animals. Key engineering challenges observed and proposed solutions for the next design iteration are also presented.

Demonstration of proof-of-concept of StrokeShield system for complete closure and occlusion of the left atrial appendage for non-valvular atrial fibrillation therapy.

In the US, the most significant morbidity and mortality associated with non-valvular atrial fibrillation (NVAF) is embolic stroke, with 90% of thrombus originating from the left atrial appendage (LAA). Anticoagulation is the preferred treatment for the prevention of stroke in NVAF patients, but clinical studies have demonstrated high levels of non-compliance and increased risk of bleeding or ineligibility for anticoagulation therapy, especially in the elderly population where the incidence of NVAF is highest. Alternatively, stroke may be preventing using clinically approved surgical and catheter-based devices to exclude or occlude the LAA, but these devices continue to be plagued by peri-device leaks and thrombus formation because of residual volume. To overcome these limitations, Cor Habere (Louisville, KY) and the University of Louisville are developing a LAA closure device (StrokeShield) that completely occludes and collapses the LAA to minimize the risk of stroke. The StrokeShield device is a collapsible occluder (nitinol reinforced membrane) that completely covers the LAA orifice with an expandable conical coil anchor that attaches to the myocardium. The device is designed for catheter-based delivery and expands to completely occlude the LAA orifice and collapse the LAA. The primary advantages of the StrokeShield system are a completely sealed LAA (no peri-device flow or residual space) and smooth endothelialized connection to the left atrial wall with minimal risk of cardiac bleeding and tamponade. We tested proof-of-concept of a prototype StrokeShield device in acute (n = 2) and chronic 60-day (n = 2) healthy canine models. Acute results demonstrated that the conical coil securely attached to the myocardium (5N pull-out force) and the Nitinol umbrella fully deployed and covered the LAA ostium. Results from the chronic implants demonstrated long-term feasibility of device placement with no procedural or device-related intra- or post-operative complications, secure placement and correct positioning of the device with no device migration. The device successfully occluded the LAA ostium and collapsed the LAA with no interference with the mitral valve, circumflex coronary artery, or pulmonary veins. Necropsy demonstrated no gross signs of thrombus or end-organ damage and the device was encapsulated in the LAA. Histology demonstrated mature neointima covering the device with expected foreign body inflammatory response. These early positive results will help to guide the iterative design process for the continued development of the StrokeShield system.

Risk Factors and Outcomes in Redo Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting.

BACKGROUND: Reoperative coronary artery bypass grafting (redo-CABG) has declined during the last decade, while use of percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) has increased. The aim of this retrospective study was to evaluate risk factors, in-hospital mortality, and long-term survival between first-time CABG and redo-CABG. METHODS: From January 2009 to December 2015, 2,581 patients underwent first-time CABG procedures while 132 underwent isolated redo-CABG. Logistic regression was used to identify risk factors predictive of redo-CABG and after propensity matching the in-hospital morbidity and long-term all-cause mortality were compared. RESULTS: Risk factors for redo-CABG were prior PCI, dyslipidaemia, diabetes and hypertension. After propensity matching there were no significant differences between the redo-CABG (n = 126) and first-time CABG groups (n = 232) in baseline characteristics. The adjusted in-hospital mortality was 3.1% for redo-CABG and 2.1% for first-time CABG (p = 0.55). Redo-CABG required significantly more intraoperative red blood cells (p = 0.03), platelets (p < 0.001), cryoprecipitate (p < 0.007) and fresh frozen plasma (p < 0.001) than first-time CABG. There was no significant difference in reoperation for bleeding (p = 0.72), prolonged ventilation (p = 0.98), postoperative stroke (p = 0.92) or dialysis (p = 0.44). The survival at 1, 3 and 5 years for redo-CABG was 93.5%, 90%, and 85% respectively, and 95.5%, 94.5%, 93% for first-time CABG, respectively (p = 0.2). CONCLUSIONS: Prior PCI after first time CABG and the risk factors for atherosclerotic disease are predictive for redo-CABG. An increased use of blood products is required during redo-CABG. After propensity matching, in-hospital mortality and long-term survival for redo-CABG is comparable to first-time operation. Re-sternotomy does not impact the survival in redo-CABG.

Left ventricular assist device explantation after myocardial recovery.

Left ventricular assist device (LVAD) treatment may lead to reverse remodeling in heart failure patients. Selected patients can recover heart function and be eligible for LVAD explantation. Surgical methods for explanting an LVAD have been reported using various surgical accesses and different degrees of retained device material. We report a surgical technique for achieving a complete pump removal, with an emphasis on the technical details of inflow and outflow pump cannula management.

Efficacy of Subcutaneous Electrocardiogram Leads for Synchronous Timing During Chronic Counterpulsation Therapy.

Counterpulsation devices (CPDs) require an accurate, reliable electrocardiogram (ECG) waveform for triggering inflation and deflation. Surface electrodes are for short-term use, and transvenous/epicardial leads require invasive implant procedure. A subcutaneous ECG lead configuration was developed as an alternative approach for long-term use with timing mechanical circulatory support (MCS) devices. In this study, efficacy testing was completed by simultaneously recording ECG waveforms from clinical-grade epicardial (control) and subcutaneous (test) leads in chronic ischemic heart failure calves implanted with CPD for up to 30 days. Sensitivity and specificity of CPD triggering by R-wave detection was quantified for each lead configuration. The subcutaneous leads provided 98.9% positive predictive value and 98.9% sensitivity compared to the epicardial ECG leads. Lead migration (n = 1) and fracture (n = 1) were observed in only 2 of 40 implanted leads, without adversely impacting triggering efficacy due to lead redundancy. These findings demonstrate the efficacy of subcutaneous ECG leads for long-term CPD timing and potential use as an alternative method for MCS device timing.

Left ventricular assist devices: current controversies and future directions.

Advanced heart failure is a growing epidemic that leads to significant suffering and economic losses. The development of left ventricular assist devices (LVADs) has led to improved quality of life and long-term survival for patients diagnosed with this devastating condition. This review briefly summarizes the short history and clinical outcomes of LVADs and focuses on the current controversies and issues facing LVAD therapy. Finally, the future directions for the role of LVADs in the treatment of end-stage heart failure are discussed.

Feasibility Study of Pulsatile Left Ventricular Assist Device for Prolonged Ex Vivo Lung Perfusion.

BACKGROUND: Ex vivo lung perfusion (EVLP) has the potential to increase the donor pool for lung transplantation by facilitating resuscitation and extended evaluation of marginal organs. Current EVLP methodology employs continuous flow (CF) pumps that produce non-pulsatile EVLP hemodynamics. In this feasibility study, we tested the hypothesis that a pulsatile flow (PF) pump will provide better EVLP support than a CF pump through delivery of physiologic hemodynamics. METHODS: Porcine lungs were supported in an EVLP model by centrifugal CF (n = 3) or PF (n = 4) left ventricular assist devices. Lungs were ventilated at 4 to 5 mL/kg, 0.21 fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2), and perfused with an acellular, albumin-based solution corrected for osmolarity, acid-base balance, and carbon dioxide pressure (≤20 hours at 30°C) for a minimum of 12 hours support. Prostaglandin E1 and 30% albumin were infused continuously. Hemodynamic, respiratory, and blood gas parameters were continuously monitored and digitally recorded hourly. Parenchymal biopsies were used for quantification of wet to dry weight ratio. RESULTS: All lungs maintained function in the EVLP circuit for a minimum of 12 hours (mean 14.7 ± 1 hours) and demonstrated minimal edema formation. The PF EVLP produced higher pulsatility as demonstrated by greater energy equivalent pressure and surplus hemodynamic energy compared with CF EVLP (p < 0.05). There were no statistically significant differences in pulmonary impedance, arterial partial pressure of oxygen/fraction of inspired oxygen, wet to dry weight ratio, and peak airway pressure between CF and PF EVLP. CONCLUSIONS: The CF and PF EVLP systems successfully maintained lungs 12+ hours using a modified Steen perfusate (XVIVO Perfusion, Inc, Goteborg, Sweden); however, there were no statistically significant differences between CF and PF groups despite higher pulsatility, suggesting that PF may not offer immediate benefits over CF for prolonged ex vivo lung preservation.

Hemodynamic changes and retrograde flow in LVAD failure.

In the event of left ventricular assist device (LVAD) failure, we hypothesized that rotary blood pumps will experience significant retrograde flow and induce adverse physiologic responses. Catastrophic LVAD failure was investigated in computer simulation with pulsatile, axial, and centrifugal LVAD, mock flow loop with pulsatile (PVAD) and centrifugal (ROTAFLOW), and healthy and chronic ischemic heart failure bovine models with pulsatile (PVAD), axial (HeartMate II), and centrifugal (HVAD) pumps. Simulated conditions were LVAD "off" with outflow graft clamped (baseline), LVAD "off" with outflow graft unclamped (LVAD failure), and LVAD "on" (5 L/min). Hemodynamics (aortic and ventricular blood pressures, LVAD flow, and left ventricular volume), echocardiography (cardiac volumes), and end-organ perfusion (regional blood flow microspheres) were measured and analyzed. Retrograde flow was observed with axial and centrifugal rotary pumps during LVAD failure in computer simulation (axial = -3.4 L/min, centrifugal = -2.8 L/min), mock circulation (pulsatile = -0.1 L/min, centrifugal = -2.7 L/min), healthy (pulsatile = -1.2 ± 0.3 L/min, axial = -2.2 ± 0.2 L/min, centrifugal = -1.9 ± 0.3 L/min), and ischemic heart failure (centrifugal = 2.2 ± 0.7 L/min) bovine models for all test conditions (p < 0.05). Differences between axial and centrifugal LVAD were statistically indiscernible. Retrograde flow increased ventricular end-systolic and end-diastolic volumes and workload, and decreased myocardial and end-organ perfusion during LVAD failure compared with baseline, LVAD support, and pulsatile LVAD failure.

Left ventricular volume unloading with axial and centrifugal rotary blood pumps.

Axial (AX) and centrifugal (CFG) rotary blood pumps have gained clinical acceptance for the treatment of advanced heart failure. Differences between AX and CFG designs and mechanism of blood flow delivery may offer clinical advantages. In this study, pump characteristics, and acute physiologic responses during support with AX (HeartMate II) and CFG (HVAD) left ventricular assist devices (LVAD) were investigated in mock loop and chronic ischemic heart failure bovine models. In the mock loop model, pump performance was characterized over a range of pump speeds (HeartMate II: 7,000-11,000 rpm, HVAD: 2,000-3,600 rpm) and fluid viscosities (2.7 cP, 3.2 cP, 3.7 cP). In the ischemic heart failure bovine model, hemodynamics, echocardiography, and end-organ perfusion were investigated. CFG LVAD had a flatter HQ curve, required less power, and had a more linear flow estimation relation than AX LVAD. The flow estimation error for the AX LVAD (±0.9 L/min at 2.7 cP, ±0.7 L/min at 3.2 cP, ±0.8 L/min at 3.7 cP) was higher than the CFG LVAD (±0.5 L/min at 2.7 cP, ±0.2 L/min at 3.2 cP, ±0.5 L/min at 3.7 cP). No differences in acute hemodynamics, echocardiography, or end-organ perfusion between AX and CFG LVAD over a wide range of support were statistically discernible. These findings suggest no pronounced acute differences in LV volume unloading between AX and CFG LVAD.

Rotary pump speed modulation for generating pulsatile flow and phasic left ventricular volume unloading in a bovine model of chronic ischemic heart failure.

BACKGROUND: Rotary blood pumps operate at a constant speed (rpm) that diminishes vascular pulsatility and variation in ventricular end-systolic and end-diastolic volumes, which may contribute to adverse events, including aortic insufficiency and gastrointestinal bleeding. In this study, pump speed modulation algorithms for generating pulsatility and variation in ventricular end-systolic and end-diastolic volumes were investigated in an ischemic heart failure (IHF) bovine model (n = 10) using a clinically implanted centrifugal-flow left ventricular assist device (LVAD). METHODS: Hemodynamic and hematologic measurements were recorded during IHF baseline, constant pumps speeds, and asynchronous (19-60 cycles/min) and synchronous (copulse and counterpulse) pump speed modulation profiles using low relative pulse speed (±25%) of 3,200 ± 800 rpm and high relative pulse speed (±38%) of 2,900 ± 1,100 rpm. End-organ perfusion, hemodynamics, and pump parameters were measured to characterize pulsatility, myocardial workload, and LVAD performance for each speed modulation profile. RESULTS: Speed modulation profiles augmented aortic pulse pressure, surplus hemodynamic energy, and end-organ perfusion (p < 0.01) compared with operation at constant speed. Left ventricular external work and myocardial oxygen consumption were significantly reduced compared with IHF baseline (p < 0.01) but at the expense of higher LVAD power consumption. CONCLUSIONS: Pump speed modulation increases pulsatility and improves cardiac function and end-organ perfusion, but the asynchronous mode provides the technologic advantage of sensorless control. Investigation of asynchronous pump speed modulation during long-term support is warranted to test the hypothesis that operating an LVAD with speed modulation will minimize adverse events in patients supported by an LVAD that may be associated with long-term operation at a constant pump speed.

Feasibility study of particulate extracellular matrix (P-ECM) and left ventricular assist device (HVAD) therapy in chronic ischemic heart failure bovine model.

Myocardial recovery with left ventricular assist device (LVAD) support is uncommon and unpredictable. We tested the hypothesis that injectable particulate extracellular matrix (P-ECM) with LVAD support promotes cell proliferation and improves cardiac function. LVAD, P-ECM, and P-ECM + LVAD therapies were investigated in chronic ischemic heart failure (IHF) calves induced using coronary embolization. Particulate extracellular matrix emulsion (CorMatrix, Roswell, GA) was injected intramyocardially using a 7 needle pneumatic delivery tool. Left ventricular assist devices (HVAD, HeartWare) were implanted in a left ventricle (LV) apex to proximal descending aorta configuration. Cell proliferation was identified using BrdU (5 mg/kg) injections over the last 45 treatment days. Echocardiography was performed weekly. End-organ regional blood flow (RBF) was quantified at study endpoints using fluorescently labeled microspheres. Before treatment, IHF calves had an ejection fraction (EF) of 33 ± 2% and left ventricular end-diastolic volume of 214 ± 18 ml with cardiac cachexia (0.69 ± 0.06 kg/day). Healthy weight gain was restored in all groups (0.89 ± 0.03 kg/day). EF increased with P-ECM + HVAD from 36 ± 5% to 75 ± 2%, HVAD 38 ± 4% to 58 ± 5%, and P-ECM 27 ± 1% to 66 ± 6%. P-ECM + HVAD demonstrated the largest increase in cell proliferation and end-organ RBF. This study demonstrates the feasibility of combined LVAD support with P-ECM injection to stimulate new cell proliferation and improve cardiac function, which warrants further investigation.

Early feasibility testing and engineering development of a sutureless beating heart connector for left ventricular assist devices.

APK Advanced Medical Technologies (Atlanta, GA) is developing a sutureless beating heart (SBH) left ventricular assist device (LVAD) connector system consisting of anchoring titanium coil, titanium cannula with integrated silicone hemostatic valve, coring and delivery tool, and LVAD locking mechanism to facilitate LVAD inflow surgical procedures. Feasibility testing was completed in human cadavers (n = 4) under simulated normal and hypertensive conditions using saline to observe seal quality in degraded human tissue and assess anatomic fit; acutely in ischemic heart failure bovine model (n = 2) to investigate short-term performance and ease of use; and chronically for 30 days in healthy calves (n = 2) implanted with HeartWare HVAD to evaluate performance and biocompatibility. Complete hemostasis was achieved in human cadavers and animals at LV pressures up to 170 mm Hg. In animals, off-pump (no cardiopulmonary bypass) anchoring of the connector was accomplished in less than 1 minute with no residual bleeding after full delivery and locking of the LVAD; and implant of connector and LVAD were successfully completed in under 10 minutes with total procedure blood loss less than 100 ml. In chronic animals before necropsy, no signs of leakage or disruption at the attachment site were observed at systolic LV pressures >200 mm Hg.

Development of an extracellular matrix delivery system for effective intramyocardial injection in ischemic tissue.

Biomaterials with direct intramyocardial injection devices have been developed and are being investigated as a potential cardiac regenerative therapy for end-stage ischemic heart failure. Decellularized extracellular matrix (ECM) has been shown to improve cardiac function and attenuate or reverse pathologic remodeling cascades. CorMatrix Cardiovascular, Inc. has developed a porcine small intestinal submucosa-derived particulate extracellular matrix (P-ECM) and ECM Delivery System to provide uniform and controlled intramyocardial delivery of the injectable P-ECM material into infarcted regions. The CorMatrix ECM Delivery System is composed of a Multi-Needle P-ECM Syringe Assembly, Automated Injection Controller, and Tissue Depth Measurement System (portable ultrasound). Feasibility of the P-ECM delivery system was tested intraoperatively in a chronic ischemic heart failure bovine model (n = 11), and demonstrated the ability to control injection volume (0.1-1.0 ml) and depth of penetration (3-5 mm) under regulated injection pressure (150 psi CO2) into the ischemic region. Targeted intramyocardial delivery of P-ECM may improve efficacy and enable development of novel patient-specific therapy.

Extended extra-aortic counterpulsation with the C-Pulse device does not alter aortic wall structure.

The C-Pulse System is an implantable, extra-aortic, non-blood-contacting counterpulsation device, investigational in the United States and intended for use as a heart assist device for heart failure (NYHA class III-ambulatory IV) patients. As long-term effects of this implantable extra-aortic counterpulsation device on the aortic wall structure are not well established, we examined the histological and clinical data of a patient supported on the device for 21 months. A 58-year-old woman diagnosed with nonischemic cardiomyopathy (NYHA III) remained symptomatic despite optimal medical therapy and dual chamber pacemaker. She was listed for heart transplant, and a C-Pulse device was implanted. One month after implantation, her symptoms improved from NYHA class III to class I, and her cardiac output increased from 3.5 to 5.5 L/min. She received a heart transplant 21 months after device implantation. Tissue samples from her ascending aorta were obtained. They appeared normal on macroscopic examination. Microscopic examination revealed a normal intima and media, with no disruption; a mild neutrophilic inflammation was noted on the adventitia. Extended extra-aortic counterpulsation with the C-Pulse device provided hemodynamics and symptoms improvement in a class III heart failure patient and does not appear to significantly alter aortic wall structures.

Early feasibility testing and engineering development of the transapical approach for the HeartWare MVAD ventricular assist system.

Implantation of ventricular assist devices (VADs) for the treatment of end-stage heart failure (HF) falls decidedly short of clinical demand, which exceeds 100,000 HF patients per year. Ventricular assist device implantation often requires major surgical intervention with associated risk of adverse events and long recovery periods. To address these limitations, HeartWare, Inc. has developed a platform of miniature ventricular devices with progressively reduced surgical invasiveness and innovative patient peripherals. One surgical implant concept is a transapical version of the miniaturized left ventricular assist device (MVAD). The HeartWare MVAD Pump is a small, continuous-flow, full-support device that has a displacement volume of 22 ml. A new cannula configuration has been developed for transapical implantation, where the outflow cannula is positioned across the aortic valve. The two primary objectives for this feasibility study were to evaluate anatomic fit and surgical approach and efficacy of the transapical MVAD configuration. Anatomic fit and surgical approach were demonstrated using human cadavers (n = 4). Efficacy was demonstrated in acute (n = 2) and chronic (n = 1) bovine model experiments and assessed by improvements in hemodynamics, biocompatibility, flow dynamics, and histopathology. Potential advantages of the MVAD Pump include flow support in the same direction as the native ventricle, elimination of cardiopulmonary bypass, and minimally invasive implantation.

Large animal models for left ventricular assist device research and development.

In vivo preclinical testing of left ventricular assist devices (LVADs) warrants a large animal model that faithfully simulates human etiology. Although LVAD recipients are in end-stage heart failure (HF), healthy, young animals have served as the experimental platform for most LVAD research and development (R&D) to demonstrate device safety, reliability, and biocompatibility. The rapidly growing HF epidemic, donor heart shortage, and clinical acceptance of LVAD for bridge-to-transplant therapy (BTT) has led to the expanded role of LVAD for destination therapy and bridge-to-recovery therapy. New paradigms for the clinical care of these emerging patient populations are needed. Clinically relevant, robust, and reproducible large animal models of HF are required to demonstrate efficacy, investigate physiologic responses, elucidate genetic, molecular, and cellular mechanism(s), and develop LVAD control strategies. The animal model must be comparable in size, anatomical structure, and phenotype; the technique used to initiate HF must reflect the clinical portrait, should be technically and financially feasible, result in predictable, stable, and irreversible HF, and demonstrate bidirectionality of the remodeling cascade. In this review, large animal species commonly used in cardiac research, techniques used to create chronic HF, and the combined applicability to preclinical LVAD R&D studies are presented.

The In Vivo Skills Laboratory in Anesthesiology Residency Training.

BACKGROUND: Anesthesiologists routinely perform high-risk procedures that are associated with permanent disability or death. Critical perioperative events require that the anesthesiologist perform procedures that are only used intermittently. Teaching these procedures is complicated by their infrequency and pressure to maximize operating room efficiency; therefore we created an annual 1-day anesthesiology skills lab as an innovative method of residency education. METHODS: Anesthetized pigs served as the educational platform for first-year anesthesiology residents to gain hands-on experience performing regional, thoracic, vascular, and difficult airway techniques. A 20-question test was administered pre- and post-lab to assess the effectiveness of our educational intervention. Participants evaluated the quality of the educational experience (1-poor to 5-excellent). RESULTS: First-year anesthesiology residents participated (n=70, 2008-2012). Residents' pre-test scores measured 50.3±2.6% (range 20-80). Following lab participation, their test scores signi ficantly improved to a mean of 84.2±1.9% (range 45-100, p<0.0001). Participants increased their knowledge and skills (mean 4.96±0.02), considered the skills lab to be a worthwhile educational experience (mean 4.99±0.01), and agreed that the lab should be repeated in the future (mean 5.00). CONCLUSIONS: In vivo labs confers educational benefits which are both perceived and self-reported by the participants and objectively demonstrated by marked improvements in their post-test scores. Animal models provide high-fidelity tactile learning, real-time physiological changes, and potential for complications which builds residents' familiarity and confidence with anesthesiology-related procedures and crisis events that would otherwise involve potential patient risk. Our lab is an enriching and well-received educational tool which promotes our goal of improving patient safety.

Right ventricular remodeling in restrictive ventricular septal defect.

Restrictive ventricular septal defect (rVSD) presents with little/no hemodynamic aberrations despite a patent septal defect. Clinically, these patients are observed with the hope that the defect will functionally close over time without the need for surgical repair and development of heart failure. Without evidence supporting a definitive therapeutic strategy, rVSD patients may have increased risk of a poor outcome. We tested the hypothesis that rVSD results in subclinical RV diastolic dysfunction and molecular remodeling. Five pigs underwent surgical rVSD creation. Echocardiography, hemodynamics, myocyte contractility experiments, and proteomics/Western blot were performed 6-weeks post-rVSD and in controls. *p<0.05. LV and RV hemodynamics in rVSD were comparable to controls. The tricuspid valve early/late diastolic inflow velocity ratio (TV E/A ratio) decreased from 1.6+/-0.05 in controls to 1.0+/-0.08* in rVSD, indicating RV diastolic dysfunction. rVSD RV myocytes showed abnormalities in contraction (departure velocity (Vd) -51%*, Vd time +55%*) and relaxation (return velocity (Vr) -50%*, Vr time +62%*). Mitochondrial proteins (fatty acid, TCA cycle) increased 2-fold*, indicating heightened RV work. Desmin protein upregulated 285%* in rVSD RV myocardium, suggesting cytoskeletal remodeling. rVSD causes RV diastolic dysfunction, myocyte functional impairment, and mitochondrial/cytoskeletal protein upregulation in our model. Desmin upregulation may hinder sarcomeric organization/relaxation, representing a key subclinical early marker for future RV dysfunction. TV E/A measurements are a non-invasive modality to assess rVSD patients for diastolic dysfunction. Translational research applications may lead to fundamental changes in the clinical management of rVSD by providing evidence for early repair of the defect.