Muscle-Protective Effect of Carnosine against Dexamethasone-Induced Muscle Atrophy in C2C12 Myotube.

This study investigated the protective effect of carnosine and its components (L-histidine and ß-alanine [HA]) against dexamethasone (Dex)-induced muscle atrophy in C2C12 myotubes. Myotubes were treated with Dex (10 µM) to induce muscle atrophy manifested by decreased myotube diameter, low myosin heavy chain content, and increased expression of muscle atrophy-associated ubiquitin ligases (Atrogin-1, MuRF-1, and Cbl-b). Carnosine (20 mM) treatment significantly improved the myotube diameter and MyHC protein expression level in Dex-treated C2C12 myotubes. It also downregulated the expression of Atrogin-1, MuRF-1, and Cbl-b and suppressed the expression of forkhead box O3 (FoxO3a) mediated by Dex. Furthermore, reactive oxygen species production was increased by Dex but was ameliorated by carnosine treatment. However, HA (20 mM), the component of carnosine, treatment was found ineffective in preventing Dex-induced protein damage. Therefore, based on above results it can be suggested that carnosine could be a potential therapeutic agent to prevent Dex-induced muscle atrophy compared to its components HA.

New pharmaceuticals approved by FDA in 2020: Small-molecule drugs derived from amino acids and related compounds.

Amino acids (AAs) play an important role in the modern health industry as key synthetic precursors for pharmaceuticals, biomaterials, biosensors, and drug delivery systems. Currently, over 30% of small-molecule drugs contain residues of tailor-made AAs or derived from them amino-alcohols and di-amines. In this review article, we profile 12 AA-derived new pharmaceuticals approved by the FDA in 2020. These newly introduced drugs include Tazverik (epithelioid sarcoma), Gemtesa (overactive bladder), Zeposia (multiple sclerosis), Byfavo (induction and maintenance of procedural sedation), Cu 64 dotatate, and Gallium 68 PSMA-11 (both PET imaging), Rimegepant (acute migraine), Zepzelca (lung cancer), Remdesivir (COVID-19), Amisulpride (nausea and vomiting), Setmelanotide (obesity), and Lonafarnib (progeria syndrome). For each compound, we describe the spectrum of biological activity, medicinal chemistry discovery, and synthetic preparation.

Comparative study of different chiral ligands for dynamic kinetic resolution of amino acids.

Dynamic kinetic resolution (DKR) of unprotected amino acids (AAs), via intermediate formation of Ni(II) complexes, is currently a leading methodology for preparation of natural and tailor-made AAs in enantiomerically pure form. In this work, we conduct a comparative case study of synthetic performance of four different ligands in DKR of six AAs representing aryl-, benzyl-, alkyl-, and long alkyl-type derivatives. The results of this study allow for rational selection of ligand/AA type to develop a practical procedure for preparation of target enantiomerically pure AAs.

Chemical Aspects of Human and Environmental Overload with Fluorine.

Over the last 100-120 years, due to the ever-increasing importance of fluorine-containing compounds in modern technology and daily life, the explosive development of the fluorochemical industry led to an enormous increase of emission of fluoride ions into the biosphere. This made it more and more important to understand the biological activities, metabolism, degradation, and possible environmental hazards of such substances. This comprehensive and critical review focuses on the effects of fluoride ions and organofluorine compounds (mainly pharmaceuticals and agrochemicals) on human health and the environment. To give a better overview, various connected topics are also discussed: reasons and trends of the advance of fluorine-containing pharmaceuticals and agrochemicals, metabolism of fluorinated drugs, withdrawn fluorinated drugs, natural sources of organic and inorganic fluorine compounds in the environment (including the biosphere), sources of fluoride intake, and finally biomarkers of fluoride exposure.

Asymmetric synthesis of (S)-3-methyleneglutamic acid and its N-Fmoc derivative via Michael addition-elimination reaction of chiral glycine Ni (II) complex with enol tosylates.

The use of chiral Ni (II)-complexes of glycine Schiff bases has recently emerged as a leading methodology for asymmetric synthesis of structurally diverse Tailor-Made Amino Acids™, playing a key role in the design of modern pharmaceuticals. Here, we report first example of enantioselective preparation of (S)-3-methyleneglutamic acid and its N-Fmoc derivative via a new type of Michael addition-elimination reaction between chiral nucleophilic glycine equivalent and enol tosylates. This reaction was found to proceed with excellent yield (91%) and diastereoselectivity (>99/1 de) allowing straightforward asymmetric synthesis of (S)-3-methyleneglutamic acid derivatives and analogues. The observed results bode well for general application of this Ni (II) complex approach for preparation and biological studies of this previously unknown type of Tailor-Made Amino Acids™.

Asymmetric synthesis of (S)-α-(octyl)glycine via alkylation of Ni(II) complex of chiral glycine Schiff base.

Over last decade, the use of Ni(II) complexes, derived from of glycine Schiff bases with chiral tridentate ligands, has emerge as a leading methodology for preparation of structurally diverse Tailor-Made Amino Acids, the key structural units in modern medicinal chemistry, and drug design. Here, we report asymmetric synthesis of derivatives of (S)-α-(octyl)glycine ((S)-2-aminodecanoic acid) and its N-Fmoc derivative via alkylation of chiral nucleophilic glycine equivalent with n-octyl bromide. Under the optimized conditions, the alkylation proceeds with excellent yield (98.1%) and diastereoselectivity (98.8% de). The observed stereochemical outcome and convenient reaction conditions bode well for application of this method for large-scale asymmetric synthesis of (S)-2-aminodecanoic acid and its derivatives.

Asymmetric Mannich reactions of (S)-N-tert-butylsulfinyl-3,3,3-trifluoroacetaldimines with yne nucleophiles.

In the present work, arylethynes were studied as new C-nucleophiles in the asymmetric Mannich addition reactions with (S)-N-tert-butylsulfinyl-3,3,3-trifluoroacetaldimine. The reactions were conducted under operationally convenient conditions affording the corresponding Mannich adducts with up to 87% yield and 70:30 diastereoselectivity. The isomeric products can be separated using regular column chromatography to afford diastereomerically pure compounds. The purified Mannich addition products were deprotected to give the target enantiomerically pure trifluoromethylpropargylamines. A mechanistic rationale for the observed stereochemical outcome is discussed.

Tailor-made amino acid-derived pharmaceuticals approved by the FDA in 2019.

Amino acids (AAs) are among a handful of paramount classes of compounds innately involved in the origin and evolution of all known life-forms. Along with basic scientific explorations, the major goal of medicinal chemistry research in the area of tailor-made AAs is the development of more selective and potent pharmaceuticals. The growing acceptance of peptides and peptidomimetics as drugs clearly indicates that AA-based molecules become the most successful structural motif in the modern drug design. In fact, among 24 small-molecule drugs approved by FDA in 2019, 13 of them contain a residue of AA or di-amines or amino-alcohols, which are commonly considered to be derived from the parent AAs. In the present review article, we profile 13 new tailor-made AA-derived pharmaceuticals introduced to the market in 2019. Where it is possible, we will discuss the development form drug-candidates, total synthesis, with emphasis on the core-AA, therapeutic area, and the mode of biological activity.

Solvent-triggered stereoselectivity of α,α-cyclopropanation of amino acids in the Ni(ii) chiral coordination environment.

Experimental and DFT investigation of the α,α-cyclopropanation of amino acids via nucleophilic addition of the deprotonated glycine Ni(ii)-Schiff-base complex, containing the (S)-proline derivatives as an auxiliary chiral moiety, to alkyl α-bromoacrylates was performed. It was demonstrated that the predominant configuration of the newly formed α-stereocenter is (S), regardless of the solvent used but the smart choice of solvent allows high diastereoselectivity at the removed ß-stereocenter to be obtained, which commonly is rather rare. DFT analysis of the reaction path provides a rationale for the stereochemical outcome observed. The cyclopropanated complexes exhibit stereodependent redox activity, thus supporting that this is a general phenomenon inherent to this class of Ni Schiff-base derivatives, accounting for the influence of the peripheral groups in the metal coordination environment on the relative impact of different parts of the molecule in the frontier orbitals via conformational changes.

Asymmetric Synthesis of Tailor-Made Amino Acids Using Chiral Ni(II) Complexes of Schiff Bases. An Update of the Recent Literature.

Tailor-made amino acids are indispensable structural components of modern medicinal chemistry and drug design. Consequently, stereo-controlled preparation of amino acids is the area of high research activity. Over last decade, application of Ni(II) complexes of Schiff bases derived from glycine and chiral tridentate ligands has emerged as a leading methodology for the synthesis of various structural types of amino acids. This review article summarizes examples of asymmetric synthesis of tailor-made α-amino acids via the corresponding Ni(II) complexes, reported in the literature over the last four years. A general overview of this methodology is provided, with the emphasis given to practicality, scalability, cost-structure and recyclability of the chiral tridentate ligands.

Kitamura Electrophilic Fluorination Using HF as a Source of Fluorine.

This review article focused on the innovative procedure for electrophilic fluorination using HF and in situ generation of the required electrophilic species derived from hypervalent iodine compounds. The areas of synthetic application of this approach include fluorination of 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds, aryl-alkyl ketones, styrene derivatives, α,ß-unsaturated ketones and alcohols, homoallyl amine and homoallyl alcohol derivatives, 3-butenoic acids and alkynes.

Which Stereoinductor Is Better for Asymmetric Functionalization of α-Amino Acids in a Nickel(II) Coordination Environment? Experimental and DFT Considerations.

The results of extended comparative investigation of nickel(II) Schiff base complexes (containing various auxiliary chiral moieties) commonly used as a methodological platform for the asymmetric synthesis of tailor-made α-amino acids are provided. The following issues are addressed: 1) redox activity (determining the possibility for electrochemically induced reactions); 2) quantitative estimation of the reactivity of deprotonated complexes towards electrophiles; and 3) quantum-chemical estimation of noncovalent interactions in the metal coordination environment (which shed light on the origin of the stereochemical outcome observed for different stereoinductors). Possible mechanisms that determine the relationship between the stereochemical configuration of a molecule and its electronic structure are discussed. The DFT-calculated HOMO-LUMO energies and localization, as well as relative energies for the (S)- and (R)-alanine derivatives, that determine the stereoinduction efficiency in thermodynamically controlled reactions in nickel(II) coordination are provided. The computational data are supported by experimental results on the monobenzylation of glycine derivatives.

Asymmetric Synthesis of 4,4-(Difluoro)glutamic Acid via Chiral Ni(II)-Complexes of Dehydroalanine Schiff Bases. Effect of the Chiral Ligands Structure on the Stereochemical Outcome.

Four differently substituted chiral Ni(II)-complexes of dehydroalanine Schiff base were prepared and reacted with BrCF2COOEt/Cu under the standard reaction conditions. The observed diastereoselectivity was found to depend on the degree and pattern of chlorine substitution for hydrogen in the structure of the dehydroalanine complexes. The unsubstituted complex gave the ratio of diastereomers (S)(2S)/(S)(2R) of 66/34. On the other hand, introduction of chlorine atoms in the strategic positions on the chiral ligands allowed to achieve a practically attractive diastereoselectivity of (∼98.5/1.5). Diastereomerically pure major product was disassembled to prepare 9-fluorenylmethyloxycarbonyl (Fmoc) derivative of (S)-4,4-difluoroglutamic acid.

Preparative Method for Asymmetric Synthesis of (S)-2-Amino-4,4,4-trifluorobutanoic Acid.

Enantiomerically pure derivatives of 2-amino-4,4,4-trifluorobutanoic acid are in great demand as bioisostere of leucine moiety in the drug design. Here, we disclose a method specifically developed for large-scale (>150 g) preparation of the target (S)-N-Fmoc-2-amino-4,4,4-trifluorobutanoic acid. The method employs a recyclable chiral auxiliary to form the corresponding Ni(II) complex with glycine Schiff base, which is alkylated with CF3-CH2-I under basic conditions. The resultant alkylated Ni(II) complex is disassembled to reclaim the chiral auxiliary and 2-amino-4,4,4-trifluorobutanoic acid, which is in situ converted to the N-Fmoc derivative. The whole procedure was reproduced several times for consecutive preparation of over 300 g of the target (S)-N-Fmoc-2-amino-4,4,4-trifluorobutanoic acid.

Development of Hamari Ligands for Practical Asymmetric Synthesis of Tailor-Made Amino Acids.

Enantiomerically pure tailor-made amino acids are in extremely high demand in nearly every sector of the health-related industries. In particular, the rapidly growing number of amino-acid-based pharmaceuticals calls for the development of advanced synthetic approaches featuring practicality and commercial viability. Here we provide a brief summary of the development of axially chiral tridentate Hamari ligands and their application for general asymmetric synthesis of various structural types of amino acids. The methodological diversity includes: dynamic kinetic resolution and (S)-/(R)-interconversion of unprotected amino acids and homologation of nucleophilic glycine equivalents via alkyl halide alkylation reactions as well as multiple-step transformations allowing preparation of polyfunctional and cyclic derivatives. The practicality of these methods is critically discussed.

Practical Method for Preparation of (S)-2-Amino-5,5,5-trifluoropentanoic Acid via Dynamic Kinetic Resolution.

This work reports an operationally convenient ∼20 g scale synthesis of (S)-2-amino-5,5,5-trifluoropentanoic acid and its Fmoc-derivative via dynamic kinetic resolution of the corresponding racemate.

Large-Scale Asymmetric Synthesis of Fmoc-(S)-2-Amino-6,6,6-Trifluorohexanoic Acid.

Here we report the first large-scale synthesis of Fmoc-(S)-2-amino-6,6,6-trifluorohexanoic acid via asymmetric alkylation of chiral Ni(II)-complex of glycine Schiff base with CF3(CH2)3I. The synthesis was performed on over 100 g scale and can be recommended as the most advanced procedure for reliable preparation of large amounts of enantiomerically pure Fmoc-(S)-2-amino-6,6,6-trifluorohexanoic acid for protein engineering and drug design. Chiral auxiliary used in this protocol can be >90 % recovered and reused.

Optical Resolution of Rimantadine.

This work discloses a new procedure for the resolution of commercially available racemic rimantadine hydrochloride to enantiomerically pure (S)-rimantadine using (R)-phenoxypropionic acid as a recyclable resolving reagent. Good chemical yields, operational ease, and low-cost structure underscore the preparative value of this method for the production of enantiomerically pure rimantadine for medicinal or synthetic studies.

Effect of substituents on the configurational stability of the stereogenic nitrogen in metal(II) complexes of α-amino acid Schiff bases.

Herein, we report a general method for quantitative measurement of the configurational stability of the stereogenic nitrogen coordinated to M (II) in the corresponding square planar complexes. This stereochemical approach is quite sensitive to steric and electronic effects of the substituents and shown to work well for Ni(II), Pd(II), and Cu(II) complexes. Structural simplicity of the compounds used, coupled with high sensitivity and reliability of experimental procedures, bodes well for application of this approach in evaluation of chemical stability and stereochemical properties of newly designed chiral ligands for general asymmetric synthesis of tailor-made amino acids.