Increased striatal VMAT2 binding in mice after chronic administration of methcathinone and manganese.

Intravenous use of a psychostimulant drug containing methcathinone (ephedrone) and manganese causes an irreversible extrapyramidal syndrome in drug abusers. We aimed to reproduce the syndrome in mice to evaluate dopaminergic damage. C57/B6 mice were intraperitoneally injected once a day with the study drug or saline for a period of 27 weeks. Motor activity was recorded in an automated motility-box. After 13 and 27 weeks of treatment, ex vivo digital autoradiography was performed using [11C]dihydrotetrabenazine ([11C]DTBZ). After 27 weeks of treatment [11C]DTBZ autoradiography demonstrated a significant increase in the striatum-to-cerebellum binding ratio compared with saline treated controls. At the same time point, there was no evident change in motor activity. Increased [11C]DTBZ binding may indicate vesicular monoamine transporter type 2 (VMAT2) function is altered. The lack of extrapyramidal symptoms in animals could be attributed to low dosing regimen or high metabolic rate.

Multimodal MRI assessment of damage and plasticity caused by status epilepticus in the rat brain.

Status epilepticus or other brain-damaging insults launch a cascade of events that may lead to the development of epilepsy. MRI techniques available today, including T(2) - and T(1) -weighted imaging, functional MRI, manganese enhanced MRI (MEMRI), arterial spin labeling (ASL), diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), and phase imaging, can detect not only damage caused by status epilepticus but also plastic changes in the brain that occur in response to damage. Optimal balance between damage and recovery processes is a key for planning possible treatments, and noninvasive imaging has the potential to greatly facilitate this process and to make personalized treatment plans possible.

Epileptogenesis in experimental models.

Epileptogenesis refers to a phenomenon in which the brain undergoes molecular and cellular alterations after a brain-damaging insult, which increase its excitability and eventually lead to the occurrence of recurrent spontaneous seizures. Common epileptogenic factors include traumatic brain injury (TBI), stroke, and cerebral infections. Only a subpopulation of patients with any of these brain insults, however, will develop epilepsy. Thus, there are two great challenges: (1) identifying patients at risk, and (2) preventing and/or modifying the epileptogenic process. Target identification for antiepileptogenic treatments is difficult in humans because patients undergoing epileptogenesis cannot currently be identified. Animal models of epileptogenesis are therefore necessary for scientific progress. Recent advances in the development of experimental models of epileptogenesis have provided tools to investigate the molecular and cellular alterations and their temporal appearance, as well as the epilepsy phenotype after various clinically relevant epileptogenic etiologies, including TBI and stroke. Studying these models will lead to answers to critical questions such as: Do the molecular mechanisms of epileptogenesis depend on the etiology? Is the spectrum of network alterations during epileptogenesis the same after various clinically relevant etiologies? Is the temporal progression of epileptogenesis similar? Work is ongoing, and answers to these questions will facilitate the identification of molecular targets for antiepileptogenic treatments, the design of treatment paradigms, and the determination of whether data from one etiology can be extrapolated to another.

Status epilepticus in 12-day-old rats leads to temporal lobe neurodegeneration and volume reduction: a histologic and MRI study.

PURPOSE: Whether status epilepticus (SE) in early infancy, rather than the underlying illness, leads to temporal lobe neurodegeneration and volume reduction remains controversial. METHODS: SE was induced with LiCl-pilocarpine in P12 rats. To assess acute neuronal damage, brains (five controls, five with SE) were investigated at 8 h after SE by using silver and Fluoro-Jade B staining. Some brains from the early phase were processed for electron microscopy. To assess chronic changes, brains from nine controls and 13 rats with SE at P12 were analyzed after 3 months by using histology and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). RESULTS: MRI analysis of the temporal lobe of adult animals with SE at P12 indicated that 23% of the rats had hippocampal, 15% had amygdaloid, and 31% had perirhinal volume reduction. Histologic analysis of sections from the MR-imaged brains correlated with the MRI data. Analysis of neurodegeneration 8 h after SE by using both silver and Fluoro-Jade B staining revealed degenerating neurons located in the same temporal lobe regions as the volume reduction in chronic samples. Electron microscopic analysis revealed irreversible ultrastructural alterations. As with the chronic histologic and MRI findings, interanimal variability was seen in the distribution and severity of acute damage. CONCLUSIONS: Our data indicate that SE at P12 can cause acute neurodegeneration in the hippocampus as well as in the adjacent temporal lobe. It is likely that acute neuronal death contributes to volume reduction in temporal lobe regions that is detected with MRI in a subpopulation of animals in adulthood.

Manganese-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging of mossy fiber plasticity in vivo.

Mn(2+)-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MEMRI) was used to characterize activity-dependent plasticity in the mossy fiber pathway after intraperitoneal kainic acid (KA) injection. Enhancement of the MEMRI signal in the dentate gyrus and the CA3 subregion of the hippocampus was evident 3 to 5 days after injection of MnCl(2) into the entorhinal cortex both in control and KA-injected rats. In volume-rendered three-dimensional reconstructions, Mn(2+)-induced signal enhancement revealed the extent of the mossy fiber pathway throughout the septotemporal axis of the dentate gyrus. An increase in the number of Mn(2+)-enhanced pixels in the dentate gyrus and CA3 subfield of rats with KA injection correlated (P < 0.05) with histologically verified mossy fiber sprouting. These data demonstrate that MEMRI can be used to detect specific changes at the cellular level during activity-dependent plasticity in vivo. The present findings also suggest that MEMRI signal changes can serve as an imaging marker of epileptogenesis.

Progression of brain damage after status epilepticus and its association with epileptogenesis: a quantitative MRI study in a rat model of temporal lobe epilepsy.

PURPOSE: This study examined the hypothesis that neurodegeneration continues after status epilepticus (SE) ends and that the severity of damage at the early phase of the epileptogenic process predicts the outcome of epilepsy in a long-term follow-up. METHODS: SE was induced in rats by electrical stimulation of the amygdala, and the progression of structural alterations was monitored with multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Absolute T2, T1rho, and diffusion (Dav) images were acquired from amygdala, piriform cortex, thalamus, and hippocampus for < or = 4.5 months after SE. Frequency and type of spontaneous seizures were monitored with video-electroencephalography recordings. Histologic damage was assessed from Nissl, Timm, and Fluoro-Jade B preparations at 8 months. RESULTS: At the acute phase (2 days after SE induction), quantitative MRI revealed increased T2, T1rho, and Dav values in the primary focal area (amygdala), reflecting disturbed water homeostasis and possible early structural damage. Pathologic T2 and T1rho were observed in mono- or polysynaptically connected regions, including the piriform cortex, midline thalamus, and hippocampus. The majority of acute MRI abnormalities were reversed by 9 days after SE. In later time points (> 20 days after induction), both the T1rho and diffusion MRI revealed secondarily affected areas, most predominantly in the amygdala and hippocampus. At this time, animals began to have spontaneous seizures. The initial pathology revealed by MRI had a low predictive value for the subsequent severity of epilepsy and tissue damage. CONCLUSIONS: The results demonstrate progressive neurodegeneration after SE in the amygdala and the hippocampus and stress the need for continued administration of neuroprotectants in the treatment of SE even after electrographic seizure activity has ceased.

Progression of neuronal damage after status epilepticus and during spontaneous seizures in a rat model of temporal lobe epilepsy.

The present study was designed to address the question of whether recurrent spontaneous seizures cause progressive neuronal damage in the brain. Epileptogenesis was triggered by status epilepticus (SE) induced by electrically stimulating the amygdala in rat. Spontaneous seizures were continuously monitored by video-EEG for up to 6 months. The progression of damage in individual rats was assessed with serial magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) by quantifying the markers of neuronal damage (T2, T1 rho, and Dav) in the amygdala and hippocampus. The data indicate that SE induces structural alterations in the amygdala and the septal hippocampus that progressively increased for approximately 3 weeks after SE. T2, T1 rho, and Dav did not normalize during the 50 days of follow-up after SE, suggesting ongoing neuronal death due to spontaneous seizures. Consistent with these observations, Fluoro-Jade B-stained preparations revealed damaged neurons in the hippocampus of spontaneously seizing animals that were sacrificed up to 62 days after SE. The presence of Fluoro-Jade B-positive neurons did not, however, correlate with the number of spontaneous seizures, but rather with the time interval from SE to perfusion. Further, there were no Fluoro-Jade B-positive neurons in frequently seizing rats that were perfused for histology 6 months after SE. Also, the number of lifetime seizures did not correlate with the severity of neuronal loss in the hilus of the dentate gyrus assessed by stereologic cell counting. The methodology used in the present experiments did not demonstrate a clear association between the number or occurrence of spontaneous seizures and the severity of hilar cell death. The ongoing hippocampal damage in these epileptic animals detected even 2 month after SE was associated with epileptogenic insult, that is, SE rather than spontaneous seizures.