In-vivo efficacy of amodiaquine-artesunate in children with uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in western Kenya.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the efficacy of amodiaquine-artesunate in an area with high chloroquine resistance in western Kenya. METHODS: Twenty-eight day in-vivo efficacy trial of amodiaquine-artesunate in 103 children aged 6-59 months in western Kenya with smear-confirmed uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria. RESULTS: The 28-day uncorrected adequate clinical and parasitological response (ACPR) was 69.0%, with 15.5% Late Clinical Failure and 15.5% Late Parasitologic Failure rates. The PCR-corrected 28-day ACPR was 90.2%. Clinical risk factors for recurrent infection (recrudescences and reinfections) were lower axillary temperature at enrollment and low weight-for-age Z-score. The presence of single nucleotide polymorphisms pfcrt 76T and pfmdr1 86Y at baseline was associated with increased risk of recurrent infections, both reinfections and recrudescences. CONCLUSION: Although artemether-lumefantrine (Coartem) is the first line ACT in Kenya, amodiaquine-artesunate is registered as an option for treatment of uncomplicated P. falciparum and remains an effective alternative to Coartem in western Kenya. Continued amodiaquine monotherapy in the private sector may jeopardize the future use of amodiaquine-artesunate as an alternative artemisinin-based combination therapy.

A longitudinal study of Giardia lamblia infection in north-east Brazilian children.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the epidemiology of Giardia lamblia infection, investigate factors which might be associated with clinical manifestations and recurrence, and examine the role of copathogens in disease course. METHODS: Prospective 4-year cohort study of children born in an urban slum in north-eastern Brazil. RESULTS: Of 157 children followed for > or = 3 months, 43 (27.4%) were infected with Giardia. The organism was identified in 8.8% of all stool specimens, and although found with similar frequency in non-diarrhoeal (7.4%) and diarrhoeal stools (9.7%), was more common in children with persistent (20.6%) than acute diarrhoea (7.6%, P=0.002). Recurrent or relapsing infections were common (46%). Children with symptomatic infections had significantly lower weight-for-age and height-for-age than asymptomatic children. Copathogens were not associated with disease course. CONCLUSION With its protean clinical manifestations, Giardia may be associated with substantial morbidity amongst children in Brazil.

HIV seroprevalence among military blood donors in Manica Province, Mozambique.

HIV seroprevalence data show an alarming HIV situation in central Mozambique, but little is known about the situation of HIV in Mozambican military personnel. This study is a retrospective analysis of laboratory records for voluntary blood donors at a rural hospital from January 1997 through December 1999. The hospital screened blood samples with HIV SPOT rapid test for HIV and rapid plasma reagin (RPR) serological test for syphilis. Of the 797 blood donors during this period, 110 (13.8%) were military personnel of whom 39.1% were HIV positive (35.0% in 1997, 33.3% in 1998 and 48.7% in 1999). Among the 687 nonmilitary donors 15.3% were HIV positive (P<0.0001 vs military). 74.4% of HIV-positive military personnel were also RPR positive. Conversely, only 3.0% of HIV-negative military donors were RPR positive. In light of the high rates of HIV and syphilis in military personnel, aggressive intervention measures must be taken to prevent and treat HIV and STDs in this population.

The use of carbon marking after stereotactic large-core-needle breast biopsy.

PURPOSE: To investigate the use of activated charcoal to mark the biopsy site and needle track after large-core-needle breast biopsy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Three hundred seventy-six consecutive patients (with 383 lesions) were referred for stereotactic breast biopsy. Two hundred forty-seven lesions were carbon marked when the need for surgery was likely. Patients who underwent marking were followed up for the results of surgery or mammography performed at our institution. Specimen sizes obtained by using the carbon mark were compared with sizes of consecutive biopsy specimens obtained after hook-wire localization. RESULTS: Carbon marking was well tolerated in all cases. All 132 surgeries performed at the authors' institution were successful in removing the marked target. Specimen sizes compared favorably with sizes of comparison hook-wire localization specimens. All 68 lesions followed mammographically revealed no changes that were attributable to the use of carbon. Two minor complications were observed. Two small cancers were completely removed at needle biopsy. CONCLUSION: Carbon marking is safe and effective for marking the biopsy site and needle track created by stereotactic large-core-needle biopsy of the breast. Marking eliminates the need for postprocedural needle localization. It remains effective when small lesions have been completely removed. This technique should be considered in properly selected cases by those performing large-core-needle biopsy of the breast.

Environmental health consequences of land mines.

This article reviews the literature on the environmental effects of anti-personnel land mines globally. Land mines represent an immediate environmental health problem. Between 60 and 70 million land mines are currently in place in over 70 countries. Designed to kill or main humans, including civilians, they injure an estimated 1, 200 persons and kill another 800 every week. Land-mine injuries tend to be serious; an estimated 300,000 persons worldwide have been disabled by them. The problem, politically very controversial, can be resolved only by preventing the further placement of mines, by demining of areas already mined, and by coping with the personal and environmental devastation that they have already caused. Environmental health personnel should be involved in promoting awareness of the problem, in improving services for land-mine victims, and in promoting political efforts to ban further use of land mines.

Persistent diarrhea signals a critical period of increased diarrhea burdens and nutritional shortfalls: a prospective cohort study among children in northeastern Brazil.

Persistent diarrhea (PD; duration >/=14 days) is a growing part of the global burden of diarrheal diseases. A 45-month prospective cohort study (with illness, nutritional, and microbiologic surveillance) was conducted in a shantytown in northeastern Brazil, to elucidate the epidemiology, nutritional impact, and causes of PD in early childhood (0-3 years of age). A nested case-control design was used to examine children's diarrhea burden and nutritional status before and after a first PD illness. PD illnesses accounted for 8% of episodes and 34% of days of diarrhea. First PD illnesses were preceded by a doubling of acute diarrhea burdens, were followed by further 2.6-3.5-fold increased diarrhea burdens for 18 months, and were associated with acute weight shortfalls. Exclusively breast-fed children had 8-fold lower diarrhea rates than did weaned children. PD-associated etiologic agents included Cryptosporidium, Giardia, enteric adenoviruses, and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli. PD signals growth shortfalls and increased diarrhea burdens; children with PD merit extended support, and the illness warrants further study to elucidate its prevention, treatment, and impact.

Parental attitudes toward varicella vaccination. The Puget Sound Pediatric Research Network.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate parental health beliefs regarding the varicella vaccine and to identify potential areas for interventions designed to increase immunization against varicella. SETTING: Data were collected in the offices of pediatricians who are members of the Puget Sound Pediatric Research Network, a regional practice-based research group in the Seattle, Wash, area. METHODS: At the time of an office visit, parents were asked to complete a survey on the varicella vaccine. Respondents indicated level of agreement with 10 health belief statements regarding the immunization using a 6-point Likert scale from "completely agree" to "completely disagree"; responses were subsequently transformed to an ordinal scale from 1 to 6, with 6 corresponding to highly positive beliefs. A composite health belief score for each respondent was computed by averaging responses to all statements. Parents also were asked to indicate the level of influence of their child's pediatrician on their decision to use the varicella vaccine. RESULTS: A total of 598 surveys were completed. Generally, parents agreed that the vaccine was worthwhile even if the only benefit was preventing a rare complication. Conversely, the majority of parents disagreed that varicella vaccine was worthwhile if the only benefit was preventing lost time from work, and that the immunization was worthwhile even if immunity was not lifelong. Parents who indicated that their child's pediatrician's opinion significantly influenced their decision to use the vaccine had higher composite health belief scores than those who indicated less influence (median scores, 4.3 and 4.0, respectively; P<.001). CONCLUSIONS: In this sample, parents had more positive health beliefs about the ability of varicella vaccine to prevent rare complications than to save time lost from work. These data also suggest that pediatricians can have an important role in increasing positive health beliefs about the vaccine. These findings may help future interventions to increase the immunization rate against varicella.

Bronchiolitis-associated hospitalizations among US children, 1980-1996.

CONTEXT: Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) causes more lower respiratory tract infections, often manifested as bronchiolitis, among young children than any other pathogen. Few national estimates exist of the hospitalizations attributable to RSV, and recent advances in prophylaxis warrant an update of these estimates. OBJECTIVES: To describe rates of bronchiolitis-associated hospitalizations and to estimate current hospitalizations associated with RSV infection. DESIGN AND SETTING: Descriptive analysis of US National Hospital Discharge Survey data from 1980 through 1996. PARTICIPANTS: Children younger than 5 years who were hospitalized in short-stay, non-federal hospitals for bronchiolitis. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Bronchiolitis-associated hospitalization rates by age and year. RESULTS: During the 17-year study period, an estimated 1.65 million hospitalizations for bronchiolitis occurred among children younger than 5 years, accounting for 7.0 million inpatient days. Fifty-seven percent of these hospitalizations occurred among children younger than 6 months and 81 % among those younger than 1 year. Among children younger than 1 year, annual bronchiolitis hospitalization rates increased 2.4-fold, from 12.9 per 1000 in 1980 to 31.2 per 1000 in 1996. During 1988-1996, infant hospitalization rates for bronchiolitis increased significantly (P for trend <.001), while hospitalization rates for lower respiratory tract diseases excluding bronchiolitis did not vary significantly (P for trend = .20). The proportion of hospitalizations for lower respiratory tract illnesses among children younger than 1 year associated with bronchiolitis increased from 22.2% in 1980 to 47.4% in 1996; among total hospitalizations, this proportion increased from 5.4% to 16.4%. Averaging bronchiolitis hospitalizations during 1994-1996 and assuming that RSV was the etiologic agent in 50% to 80% of November through April hospitalizations, an estimated 51, 240 to 81, 985 annual bronchiolitis hospitalizations among children younger than 1 year were related to RSV infection. CONCLUSIONS: During 1980-1996, rates of hospitalization of infants with bronchiolitis increased substantially, as did the proportion of total and lower respiratory tract hospitalizations associated with bronchiolitis. Annual bronchiolitis hospitalizations associated with RSV infection among infants may be greater than previous estimates for RSV bronchiolitis and pneumonia hospitalizations combined.

Pharmacy-based evaluation and treatment of minor illnesses in a culturally diverse pediatric clinic.

BACKGROUND: Among medically underserved immigrant parents, access to nonprescription medicines for home treatment of minor childhood illnesses may be limited by scarce financial resources or language barriers. OBJECTIVES: To design and implement a new clinical service for an urban ambulatory pediatric clinic with a large immigrant population that allows pharmacists to evaluate and to treat children and adolescents aged 6 months to 19 years with minor acute illnesses and to provide bilingual patient education materials. METHODS: We developed protocols and encounter forms for pharmacist evaluation of 5 pediatric conditions: cough/cold, fever, diaper rash, vomiting/diarrhea, and head lice. We published bilingual patient education materials for these conditions in 8 commonly spoken languages. We assessed safety by thoroughly reviewing the medical records of all patients who returned within 1 week of a pharmacy encounter and by asking parents in a telephone survey to compare services received through the pharmacy and the acute care clinic for treatment of the common cold. RESULTS: During the first year of this pilot program, 191 patients were evaluated and treated, 145 (76%) for cough/cold. Seventy percent of the patients were immigrants. No unexpected or adverse outcomes were detected, although occasional deviations from established protocols were noted. Parent satisfaction with the pharmacy service was high, and similar to that received through the standard acute care clinic. Patients evaluated by pharmacists were more likely to be attended to promptly (< 15-minute wait) and were more likely to receive written information than patients evaluated by physicians for similar conditions. CONCLUSIONS: Pharmacist evaluation and treatment of minor pediatric illnesses seems to be both safe and well accepted. Further studies are needed to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of this service in diverse settings. In states that allow pharmacists to have prescriptive authority, pharmacy-based evaluation and treatment may improve access to care for children with minor illnesses.

Longitudinal study of Cryptosporidium infection in children in northeastern Brazil.

A prospective, 4-year cohort study of children born in an urban slum in northeastern Brazil was undertaken to elucidate the epidemiology of Cryptosporidium infection in an endemic setting, describe factors associated with Cryptosporidium-associated persistent diarrhea, and clarify the importance of copathogens in symptomatic cryptosporidiosis. A total of 1476 episodes of diarrhea, accounting for 7581 days of illness (5.25 episodes/child-year), were recorded: of these, 102 episodes (6.9%) were persistent. Cryptosporidium oocysts were identified in 7.4% of all stools, and they were found more frequently in children with persistent diarrhea (16.5%) than in those with acute (8.4%) or no (4.0%) diarrhea (P<.001). Low-birth-weight children and those living in densely crowded subdivisions were at greater risk for symptomatic infection. Disease course was highly variable and was not associated with the presence of copathogens. Recurrent Cryptosporidium infection and relapsing diarrhea associated with it were moderately common. In light of these data, the applicability of the current World Health Organization diarrheal definitions to Cryptosporidium-associated diarrheal episodes may need to be reconsidered.

Perinatal risk factors for infant hospitalization with viral gastroenteritis.

CONTEXT: A tetravalent vaccine against rotavirus, the most commonly identified etiologic agent of viral gastroenteritis (GE), has recently been licensed for use in the United States. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate whether specific groups of infants might be at sufficiently high risk to warrant a focused rotavirus vaccine policy, we investigated perinatal risk factors for hospitalization with viral GE and rotavirus in the first year of life. DESIGN: Population-based, case-control study. SETTING: Washington State linked birth certificate and hospital discharge abstracts from 1987 through 1995. PATIENTS: Infants, 1 through 11 months of age, hospitalized for viral GE (N = 1606) were patients in this study. Control subjects were 8084 nonhospitalized infants, frequency-matched to patients on year of birth. PRIMARY OUTCOME MEASURE: Maternal and infant characteristics associated with infant hospitalization for viral GE. RESULTS: We found a significant association between birth weight and the risk for hospitalization. Very low birth weight infants (<1500 g) were at the highest risk (odds ratio [OR] 2.6; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.6,4.1);, low birth weight infants (1500-2499 g), at intermediate risk (OR 1.6; 95% CI: 1.3,2.1); and large infants (>4000 g), at reduced risk (OR 0.8; 95% CI: 0.6,0.9). Other characteristics associated with GE hospitalization were male gender (OR 1.4; 95% CI: 1.3,1.6); maternal smoking (OR 1.2; 95% CI: 1.1,1. 4); unmarried mother (OR 1.2; 95% CI: 1.1,1.4); Medicaid insurance (OR 1.4; 95% CI: 1.3,1.7); and maternal age <20 years (OR 1.2; 95% CI: 1.0,1.5). Infants born October through December were at decreased risk for hospitalization (OR 0.8; 95% CI: 0.7,0.9), as were infants born to Asian mothers (OR 0.5; 95% CI: 0.3,0.7), and infants born to mothers >34 years of age (OR 0.7; 95% CI: 0.6,0.9). Using these factors, the area under a receiver operating characteristic curve was 0.63. Therefore, to achieve a sensitivity of 90% in identifying high-risk infants, specificity would fall to 10%. Subanalyses of children admitted for viral GE during the peak of the Northwest rotavirus season (January to March) and children with confirmed rotavirus infection demonstrated similar risk factors and receiver operating characteristic curves. CONCLUSION: We conclude that a focused rotavirus vaccination policy using readily identifiable potential high-risk groups would be unlikely to prevent most infant hospitalizations associated with rotavirus infection. However, the safety of rotavirus vaccine in low birth weight and premature infants must be established, because these children appear to be at greater risk for hospitalization with viral GE and rotavirus.

Bupivacaine-induced seizures and ventricular fibrillation in a 13-year-old girl undergoing wound debridement.

Bupivacaine is a commonly used local anesthetic in dental, ophthalmologic, and simple surgical procedures. Its current popularity derives from its potency and relatively long half-life. Widespread use of bupivacaine has resulted in sometimes severe adverse reactions when significant systemic absorption has occurred. This report documents a life-threatening event following use of bupivacaine, briefly reviews its neurotoxic and cardiotoxic effects, and raises questions about current management strategies when toxicity occurs.

Reactions of pediatricians to the recommendation for universal varicella vaccination.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the rate of self-reported adherence by pediatricians to the 1995 American Academy of Pediatrics and the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices varicella immunization recommendations and to evaluate factors that might influence adherence. DESIGN: Mail survey. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Washington State pediatricians. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Logistic regression was used to identify demographic characteristics, attitudes about varicella vaccine, and previous experiences with the disease that were associated with self-reported adherence to universal varicella immunization recommendations. RESULTS: Completed surveys were returned by 76% of contacted pediatricians, of whom 42% reported following a policy of universal varicella immunization. In multivariate analysis, agreement with statements regarding the effectiveness of varicella vaccine in reducing rare but serious complications of the disease (odds ratio [OR], 4.90; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.30-10.50) and in decreasing work loss by parents (OR, 4.21; 95% CI, 1.14-15.50) were associated with recommending universal immunization. Disagreement with statements concerning the lack of the need for varicella immunization because complications are rare (OR, 2.54; 95% CI, 1.12-5.74), it is not required for school entry (OR, 2.52; 95% CI, 1.37-4.64), and it is not medically cost-effective (OR, 2.25; 95% CI, 1.21-4.18) were also associated with universally recommending the vaccine. In addition, experience with varicella encephalitis was also associated with adherence to the recommendations (OR, 1.96; 95% CI, 1.06-3.65). Conversely, those who were concerned that varicella vaccine might not provide lifelong immunity were less likely to report recommending universal vaccination (OR, 0.36; 95% CI, 0.19-0.68). CONCLUSIONS: Fewer than 50% of responding Washington State pediatricians reported recommending universal varicella vaccination. Adherence to the recommendations appears to be influenced by personal experience, perceptions about the potential seriousness of varicella, and beliefs about the societal and medical cost-effectiveness of varicella vaccine.

Satisfaction with outpatient health care services in Manica Province, Mozambique.

The objective of the study was to describe ambulatory health care services, determine the level of client satisfaction, and identify obstacles to care in a rural area of Mozambique. Exit surveys at 34 health clinics in Manica Province were completed on a sample of 879 adults representing between 1% and 2% of the average monthly visit totals at each clinic. Eighty-three per cent of interviewees were women. Just over half of the visits were for paediatric patients. Men were more likely to be at the clinic for their own health care needs than women (81% vs. 40%, p < 0.001). Of patients seen for acute illness, 45% were examined, 22% received preventive education, and 23% received prognostic information. Overall, 55% of interviewees believed that the service they received was good or very good, 32% rated it as fair, and 13% as poor. Satisfaction was positively associated with increased training level of the provider (p < 0.005), and shorter waiting times (p < 0.001). The most common complaints about the clinic visits were lack of adequate transportation, long waiting times, lack of physical examinations, and failure to receive prescribed medications. These findings suggest that the majority of Mozambicans interviewed are moderately satisfied with the available outpatient services in Manica. Provider training, provider availability and distribution of medicines were areas identified by respondents as needing improvement.

Cryptosporidiosis in northeastern Brazilian children: association with increased diarrhea morbidity.

To evaluate the impact of Cryptosporidium infection on diarrheal disease burden and nutrition status, a nested case-control study was done among children who were followed from birth in Fortaleza, Brazil. The diarrhea history and growth records of 43 children with a symptomatic diarrhea episode of cryptosporidiosis (case-children) were compared with those of 43 age-matched controls with no history of cryptosporidiosis. After Cryptosporidium infection, case-children < or = 1 year old experienced an excessive and protracted (nearly 2 years) diarrheal disease burden. Case-children < or = 1 year old with no history of diarrhea prior to their Cryptosporidium infection also experienced a subsequent increased diarrheal disease burden with an associated decline in growth. Control subjects experienced no change in their diarrhea burden over time. This study suggests that an episode of symptomatic Cryptosporidium infection in children < or = 1 year of age is a marker for increased diarrhea morbidity.

A wilderness medicine course for pediatric residents.

OBJECTIVE: To design a structured curriculum to teach pediatric residents about wilderness medicine. BACKGROUND: An increasing number of children are involved in more rigorous and potentially risky outdoor activities. Despite the breadth of exposure characteristic of most pediatric residences, we are aware of no formalized syllabus that prepares residents to both treat injuries sustained in outdoor pursuits, and help parents and children to prepare safely for such activities. METHODS: The first half of the course was designed to teach a broad range of topics in wilderness medicine through a series of readings, lectures, and field trips. The second half of the course involved a six-day course in wilderness skills. RESULTS: Over a three-week period, the major topics of wilderness medicine were thoroughly covered. The three residents involved in the planning and execution of the course felt that the course succeeded in filling an important gap in their pediatric residency training. CONCLUSIONS: The addition of a structured wilderness medicine elective to pediatric residencies, with or without a field component, may provide a valuable opportunity for pediatric residents to broaden their skills and knowledge base to include these increasingly important topics.

Seroepidemiology of Entamoeba histolytica in a slum in northeastern Brazil.

Infection with the human pathogenic parasite Entamoeba histolytica has not been well-characterized in northeastern Brazil. In this study, the prevalence of E. histolytica infection in a slum in northeastern Brazil was assayed using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for antibodies against the galactose/N-acetyl-D-galactosamine (Gal/GalNAc)-inhibitable adherence lectin of E. histolytica. Sera from a total of 335 individuals were examined for anti-Gal/GalNAc lectin antibodies. The overall seropositivity was 24.7%; 29.4% of females and 19.4% of males were positive. Among different age groups there was a peak of 40% positivity in the 6-14-year-old age group. There was also familial clustering of seropositivity. To examine colonization, stool samples from 155 people were examined microscopically for the presence of the parasite. Fourteen of 155 stools (9.0%) were identified as containing E. histolytica or nonpathogenic E. dispar. These 14 positive stools were analyzed with an ELISA that detects Gal/GalNAc lectin antigen and can distinguish between E. histolytica and E. dispar. Four stools (29%) were positive for E. histolytica and the remaining 10 were identified as E. dispar-positive. Although the overall colonization rate by microscopy was only 9%, with a third identified as E. histolytica, up to 40% of older children develop serologic evidence of having experienced pathogenic E. histolytica infection. The results of this study demonstrate that this community in northeastern Brazil is highly endemic for E. histolytica with infection rates similar to other developing nations.