Genomic organization, sequence characterization and expression analysis of Tenebrio molitor apolipophorin-III in response to an intracellular pathogen, Listeria monocytogenes.

Apolipophorin III (apoLp-III) is a well-known hemolymph protein having a functional role in lipid transport and immune response of insects. We cloned full-length cDNA encoding putative apoLp-III from larvae of the coleopteran beetle, Tenebrio molitor (TmapoLp-III), by identification of clones corresponding to the partial sequence of TmapoLp-III, subsequently followed with full length sequencing by a clone-by-clone primer walking method. The complete cDNA consists of 890 nucleotides, including an ORF encoding 196 amino acid residues. Excluding a putative signal peptide of the first 20 amino acid residues, the 176-residue mature apoLp-III has a calculated molecular mass of 19,146Da. Genomic sequence analysis with respect to its cDNA showed that TmapoLp-III was organized into four exons interrupted by three introns. Several immune-related transcription factor binding sites were discovered in the putative 5'-flanking region. BLAST and phylogenetic analyses reveal that TmapoLp-III has high sequence identity (88%) with Tribolium castaneum apoLp-III but shares little sequence homologies (<26%) with other apoLp-IIIs. Homology modeling of Tm apoLp-III shows a bundle of five amphipathic alpha helices, including a short helix 3'. The 'helix-short helix-helix' motif was predicted to be implicated in lipid binding interactions, through reversible conformational changes and accommodating the hydrophobic residues to the exterior for stability. Highest level of TmapoLp-III mRNA was detected at late pupal stages, albeit it is expressed in the larval and adult stages at lower levels. The tissue specific expression of the transcripts showed significantly higher numbers in larval fat body and adult integument. In addition, TmapoLp-III mRNA was found to be highly upregulated in late stages of L. monocytogenes or E. coli challenge. These results indicate that TmapoLp-III may play an important role in innate immune responses against bacterial pathogens in T. molitor.

Molecular and immunohistochemical characterization of the chitinase gene from Pieris rapae granulovirus.

The chitinase gene of baculoviruses is expressed in the late phase of virus replication in insects and possesses high exo- and endochitinase activity, which can hydrolyze chitin in the body of the insect, thus promoting terminal host liquefaction. Alphabaculovirus viral chitinases (vChitA) have been well analyzed, but information regarding viral chitinases from betabaculoviruses is limited. Whole-genome sequencing of a Korean isolate of Pieris rapae GV (PiraGV-K) predicted a putative chitinase gene corresponding to ORF10. The PiraGV-K chitinase gene had a coding sequence of 1,761 bp, encoding a protein of 586 amino acid (aa) residues, including an 18-aa putative signal peptide. Time course induction pattern observed by SDS-PAGE and subsequent Western blot with anti-PiraGV-K chitinase antibody revealed the cleavage of the signal peptide from the intact chitinase. Edman sequencing analysis was further conducted to confirm the exact nature of the mature chitinase, and the N-terminal amino acid sequence (KPGAP) exactly matched the sequence following the signal peptide sequence. The transcriptomics of PiraGV-K chitinase in infected P. rapae larvae, examined by real-time PCR, revealed a significant 75-fold increase after four days of feeding with PiraGV-K-treated leaves, with a subsequent decline at the later stages of infection. Confocal microscopic analysis showed that PiraGV-K chitinase possibly exists as a secreted protein, with strong chitinase-specific signals in fat body cells and integument at four days postinfection. Furthermore, immunogold labeling and electron microscopy studies localized the PiraGV-K chitinase in the cytoplasm and sparsely within vacuolar structures in the fat body apart from the extensive aggregation in the cuticular lining of the integument.

Molecular and immunohistochemical characterization of granulin gene encoded in Pieris rapae granulovirus genome.

Pieris rapae granulovirus (PiraGV) is highly pathogenic to the cabbage butterfly (P. rapae), an important pest of cultivated cabbages and mustard crops. It therefore holds significant promise towards exploitation as a potent bio-control agent in the field controlling the pest population. Whole-genome elucidation of the Korean isolate of the granulovirus (PiraGV-K), reported the presence of a granulin gene corresponding to ORF 1 in its genome. Comprehensive studies towards functional characterization of the gene, established that it is composed of 744 nucleotides and encodes a peptide of 247 amino acid residues. It possessed significant homology with AoGV and ClanGV with 87% identity at amino acid level. Multiple alignment data suggests that the C-terminus region of the gene had three different conserved regions. Time-course studies conducted in PiraGV-K infected P. rapae larvae revealed a significant upsurge of the transcript (134-fold) at 4 days post infection followed by a significant decline at the most advanced stages of infection. Anti-PiraGV-K granulin antibody was produced and western blot conducted with the infected larvae further confirmed the induction pattern with a protein of 30 kDa. Immunofluorescent staining showed a granulin-specific signal in fat body and integument of the infected larvae. Granulin-specific signals were noticed 2 days post infection with the eventual systemic spread of infection to the associated tracheal matrix witnessed at 4 days post infection. Immunogold labeling and electron microscopic studies further proved the cytopathological effects as the presence of numerous membrane-bound vesicles with nucleocapsids and abruption of intercellular junctions in fat body and hypertrophied cells in the integument.

Analysis of the genome of a Korean isolate of the Pieris rapae granulovirus enabled by its separation from total host genomic DNA by pulse-field electrophoresis.

BACKGROUND: Most traditional genome sequencing projects involving viruses include the culture and purification of the virus particles. However, purification of virions may yield insufficient material for traditional sequencing. The electrophoretic method described here provides a strategy whereby the genomic DNA of the Korean isolate of Pieris rapae granulovirus (PiraGV-K) could be recovered in sufficient amounts for sequencing by purifying it directly from total host DNA by pulse-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: The total genomic DNA of infected P. rapae was embedded in agarose plugs, treated with restriction nuclease and methylase, and then PFGE was used to separate PiraGV-K DNA from the DNA of P. rapae, followed by mapping of fosmid clones of the purified viral DNA. The double-stranded circular genome of PiraGV-K was found to encode 120 open reading frames (ORFs), which covered 92% of the sequence. BLAST and ORF arrangement showed the presence of 78 homologs to other genes in the database. The mean overall amino acid identity of PiraGV-K ORFs was highest with the Chinese isolate of PiraGV (~99%), followed up with Choristoneura occidentalis ORFs at 58%. PiraGV-K ORFs were grouped, according to function, into 10 genes involved in transcription, 11 involved in replication, 25 structural protein genes, and 15 auxiliary genes. Genes for Chitinase (ORF 10) and cathepsin (ORF 11), involved in the liquefaction of the host, were found in the genome. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: The recovery of PiraGV-K DNA genome by pulse-field electrophoretic separation from host genomic DNA had several advantages, compared with its isolation from particles harvested as virions or inclusions from the P. rapae host. We have sequenced and analyzed the 108,658 bp PiraGV-K genome purified by the electrophoretic method. The method appears to be generally applicable to the analysis of genomes of large viruses.

Apolipophorin-III mediates antiplasmodial epithelial responses in Anopheles gambiae (G3) mosquitoes.

BACKGROUND: Apolipophorin-III (ApoLp-III) is known to play an important role in lipid transport and innate immunity in lepidopteran insects. However, there is no evidence of involvement of ApoLp-IIIs in the immune responses of dipteran insects such as Drosophila and mosquitoes. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We report the molecular and functional characterization of An. gambiae apolipophorin-III (AgApoLp-III). Mosquito ApoLp-IIIs have diverged extensively from those of lepidopteran insects; however, the predicted tertiary structure of AgApoLp-III is similar to that of Manduca sexta (tobacco hornworm). We found that AgApoLp-III mRNA expression is strongly induced in the midgut of An. gambiae (G3 strain) mosquitoes in response to Plasmodium berghei infection. Furthermore, immunofluorescence stainings revealed that high levels of AgApoLp-III protein accumulate in the cytoplasm of Plasmodium-invaded cells and AgApoLp-III silencing increases the intensity of P. berghei infection by five fold. CONCLUSION: There are broad differences in the midgut epithelial responses to Plasmodium invasion between An. gambiae strains. In the G3 strain of An. gambiae AgApoLp-III participates in midgut epithelial defense responses that limit Plasmodium infection.

Controlled transcriptional regulation in eukaryotes by a novel transcription factor derived from Escherichia coli purine repressor.

Unlike the DNA-binding domains (DBD) of most eukaryotic transcription factors, Escherichia coli LacI family transcription factors are unable to bind to specific target DNA sequences without a cofactor-binding domain. In the present study, we reconstructed a novel DBD designated as PurHG, which binds constitutively to a 16bp purine repressor operator, by fusion of the purine repressor (PurR) DBD (residues 1-57) and the GAL4 dimerization domain (DD, residues 42-148). Binding of PurHG to DNA requires the dimerization and a hinge helix of PurR DBD. When the PurHG was expressed as a fusion protein in a form of a transcription activator (PurAD) or an artificial nuclear receptor (PurAPR or PurAER) responding to ligand, such as RU486 or beta-estradiol, it could regulate the expression of the reporter genes in NIH3T3 cells. The prerequisite region of the GAL4 DD for DNA-binding was amino acid residues from 42 to 98 in the form of PurAD, while the amino acid residues from 42 to 75 were sufficient for ligand-dependent regulation in the form of PurAPR. These results suggest that the dimerization function of the progesterone ligand-binding domain could be substituted for region 76-98 of the GAL4 DD. In summary, the fusion of the PurR DBD and the GAL4 DD generates fully active DNA-binding protein, PurHG, in vitro and in vivo, and these results provide the direct evidence of structural predictions that the proximate positioning of PurR hinge helical regions is critical for DNA-binding.