EVATOM: an optical, label-free, machine learning assisted embryo health assessment tool.

The combination of a good quality embryo and proper maternal health factors promise higher chances of a successful in vitro fertilization (IVF) procedure leading to clinical pregnancy and live birth. Of these two factors, selection of a good embryo is a controllable aspect. The current gold standard in clinical practice is visual assessment of an embryo based on its morphological appearance by trained embryologists. More recently, machine learning has been incorporated into embryo selection "packages". Here, we report EVATOM: a machine-learning assisted embryo health assessment tool utilizing an optical quantitative phase imaging technique called artificial confocal microscopy (ACM). We present a label-free nucleus detection method with, to the best of our knowledge, novel quantitative embryo health biomarkers. Two viability assessment models are presented for grading embryos into two classes: healthy/intermediate (H/I) or sick (S) class. The models achieve a weighted F1 score of 1.0 and 0.99 respectively on the in-distribution test set of 72 fixed embryos and a weighted F1 score of 0.9 and 0.95 respectively on the out-of-distribution test dataset of 19 time-instances from 8 live embryos.

Epigenetic disruptions in the offspring hypothalamus in response to maternal infection.

DNA methylation is an epigenetic modification that can alter gene expression, and the incidence can vary across developmental stages, inflammatory conditions, and sexes. The effects of viral maternal viral infection and sex on the DNA methylation patterns were studied in the hypothalamus of a pig model of immune activation during development. DNA methylation at single-base resolution in regions of high CpG density was measured on 24 individual hypothalamus samples using reduced representation bisulfite sequencing. Differential over- and under-methylated sites were identified and annotated to proximal genes and corresponding biological processes. A total of 120 sites were differentially methylated (FDR-adjusted p-value < 0.05) between maternal infection or sex groups. Among the 66 sites differentially methylated between groups exposed to inflammatory signals and control, most sites were over-methylated in the challenged group and included sites in the promoter regions of genes SIRT3 and NRBP1. Among the 54 differentially methylated sites between females and males, most sites were over-methylated in females and included sites in the promoter region of genes TNC and EIF4G1. The analysis of the genes proximal to the differentially methylated sites suggested that biological processes potentially impacted include immune response, neuron migration and ensheathment, peptide signaling, adaptive thermogenesis, and tissue development. These results suggest that translational studies should consider that the prolonged effect of maternal infection during gestation may be enacted through epigenetic regulatory mechanisms that may differ between sexes.

Immune and metabolic challenges induce changes in pain sensation and related pathways in the hypothalamus.

The hypothalamic molecular processes participate in the regulation of the neuro-immune-endocrine system, including hormone, metabolite, chemokine circulation, and corresponding physiological and behavioral responses. RNA-sequencing profiles were analyzed to understand the effect of juvenile immune and metabolic distress 100 days after virally elicited maternal immune activation during gestation in pigs. Over 1,300 genes exhibited significant additive or interacting effects of gestational immune activation, juvenile distress, and sex. One-third of these genes presented multiple effects, emphasizing the complex interplay of these factors. Key functional categories enriched among affected genes included sensory perception of pain, steroidogenesis, prolactin, neuropeptide, and inflammatory signaling. These categories underscore the intricate relationship between gestational immune activation during gestation, distress, and the response of hypothalamic pathways to insults. These effects were sex-dependent for many genes, such as Prdm12, Oprd1, Isg20, Prl, Oxt, and Vip. The prevalence of differentially expressed genes annotated to proinflammatory and cell cycle processes suggests potential implications for synaptic plasticity and neuronal survival. The gene profiles affected by immune activation, distress, and sex pointed to the action of transcription factors SHOX2, STAT1, and REST. These findings underscore the importance of considering sex and postnatal challenges when studying causes of neurodevelopmental disorders and highlight the complexity of the "two-hit" hypothesis in understanding their etiology. Our study furthers the understanding of the intricate molecular responses in the hypothalamus to gestational immune activation and subsequent distress, shedding light on the sex-specific effects and the potential long-lasting consequences on pain perception, neuroendocrine regulation, and inflammatory processes.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The interaction of infection during gestation and insults later in life influences the molecular mechanisms in the hypothalamus that participate in pain sensation. The response of the hypothalamic transcriptome varies between sexes and can also affect synapses and immune signals. The findings from this study assist in the identification of agonists or antagonists that can guide pretranslational studies to ameliorate the effects of gestational insults interacting with postnatal challenges on physiological or behavioral disorders.

The effects of short-term and long-term phthalate exposures on ovarian follicle growth dynamics and hormone levels in female mice†.

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and diisononyl phthalate are widely used as plasticizers in polyvinyl chloride products. Short-term exposures to phthalates affect hormone levels, ovarian follicle populations, and ovarian gene expression. However, limited data exist regarding the effects of long-term exposure to phthalates on reproductive functions. Thus, this study tested the hypothesis that short-term and long-term exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate or diisononyl phthalate disrupts follicle dynamics, ovarian and pituitary gene expression, and hormone levels in female mice. Adult CD-1 female mice were exposed to vehicle, di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, or diisononyl phthalate (0.15 ppm, 1.5 ppm, or 1500 ppm) via the chow for 1 or 6 months. Short-term exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (0.15 ppm) and diisononyl phthalate (1.5 ppm) decreased serum follicle-stimulating hormone levels compared to control. Long-term exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and diisononyl phthalate (1500 ppm) increased the percentage of primordial follicles and decreased the percentages of preantral and antral follicles compared to control. Both phthalates increased follicle-stimulating hormone levels (di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate at 1500 ppm; diisononyl phthalate at 1.5 ppm) and decreased luteinizing hormone levels (di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate at 0.15 and 1.5 ppm; diisononyl phthalate at 1.5 ppm and 1500 ppm) compared to control. Furthermore, both phthalates altered the expression of pituitary gonadotropin subunit genes (Cga, Fshb, and Lhb) and a transcription factor (Nr5a1) that regulates gonadotropin synthesis. These data indicate that long-term exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and diisononyl phthalate alters follicle growth dynamics in the ovary and the expression of gonadotropin subunit genes in the pituitary and consequently luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone synthesis.

Prenatal and postnatal challenges affect the hypothalamic molecular pathways that regulate hormonal levels.

This study aimed to improve our understanding of how the hypothalamus mediates the effects of prenatal and postnatal challenges on behavior and sensitivity to stimuli. A pig model of virally initiated maternal immune activation (MIA) was used to investigate potential interactions of the prenatal challenge both with sex and with postnatal nursing withdrawal. The hypothalami of 72 females and males were profiled for the effects of MIA and nursing withdrawal using RNA-sequencing. Significant differential expression (FDR-adjusted p value < 0.05) was detected in the profile of 222 genes. Genes involved in the Gene Ontology biological process of regulation of hormone levels tended to be over-expressed in individuals exposed to both challenges relative to individuals exposed to either one challenge, and most of these genes were over-expressed in MIA females relative to males across nursing levels. Differentially expressed genes included Fshb, Ttr, Agrp, Gata3, Foxa2, Tfap2b, Gh1, En2, Cga, Msx1, and Npy. The study also found that prenatal and postnatal challenges, as well as sex, impacted the regulation of neurotransmitter activity and immune effector processes in the hypothalamus. In particular, the olfactory transduction pathway genes were over-expressed in weaned MIA males, and several transcription factors were potentially found to target the differentially expressed genes. Overall, these results highlight how multiple environmental challenges can interact and affect the molecular mechanisms of the hypothalamus, including hormonal, immune response, and neurotransmitter processes.

Dietary exposure to an environmentally relevant phthalate mixture alters follicle dynamics, hormone levels, ovarian gene expression, and pituitary gene expression in female mice.

Phthalates are chemicals ubiquitously used in industry. Individual phthalates have been found to adversely affect female reproduction; however, humans are exposed to a mixture of phthalates daily, primarily through ingestion. Previous studies show that exposure to an environmentally relevant mixture of phthalates (Mix) can affect female reproduction. Little research, however, has been conducted on the effects of short-term (1 month) and long-term (6 months) exposure to Mix on ovarian functions. Thus, this study tested the hypothesis that short-term and long-term exposure to Mix alters ovarian folliculogenesis, serum hormone concentrations, pituitary gene expression, and ovarian expression of genes involved in steroidogenesis, apoptosis, cell cycle regulation, and oxidative stress. Adult CD-1 female mice were exposed to vehicle control (corn oil) or Mix (0.15-1500 ppm) in the chow for 1 or 6 months. Exposure to Mix for 1 month increased the number of atretic follicles (0.15 ppm), altered ovarian gene expression (0.15 ppm, 1500 ppm), and decreased serum testosterone (1.5 ppm) compared to control. Exposure to Mix for 6 months increased serum follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) (0.15 ppm), decreased serum luteinizing hormone (LH) (0.15 ppm, 1.5 ppm, and 1500 ppm), decreased serum estradiol (1500 ppm), altered pituitary gene expression (1500 ppm), increased the number (1500 ppm) and percentage (1.5 ppm and 1500 ppm) of primordial follicles, and decreased the percentage of preantral (1500 ppm) and antral (1.5 ppm and 1500 ppm) follicles compared to control. These data indicate that exposure to Mix can alter folliculogenesis, steroidogenesis, and gene expression in female mice.

Influenza A virus infection disrupts oligodendrocyte homeostasis and alters the myelin lipidome in the adult mouse.

BACKGROUND: Recent data suggest that myelin may be altered by physiological events occurring outside of the central nervous system, which may cause changes to cognition and behavior. Similarly, peripheral infection by non-neurotropic viruses is also known to evoke changes to cognition and behavior. METHODS: Mice were inoculated with saline or influenza A virus. Bulk RNA-seq, lipidomics, RT-qPCR, flow cytometry, immunostaining, and western blots were used to determine the effect of infection on OL viability, protein expression and changes to the lipidome. To determine if microglia mediated infection-induced changes to OL homeostasis, mice were treated with GW2580, an inhibitor of microglia activation. Additionally, conditioned medium experiments using primary glial cell cultures were also used to test whether secreted factors from microglia could suppress OL gene expression. RESULTS: Transcriptomic and RT-qPCR analyses revealed temporal downregulation of OL-specific transcripts with concurrent upregulation of markers characteristic of cellular stress. OLs isolated from infected mice had reduced cellular expression of myelin proteins compared with those from saline-inoculated controls. In contrast, the expression of these proteins within myelin was not different between groups. Similarly, histological and immunoblotting analysis performed on various brain regions indicated that infection did not alter OL viability, but increased expression of a cellular stress marker. Shot-gun lipidomic analysis revealed that infection altered the lipid profile within the prefrontal cortex as well as in purified brain myelin and that these changes persisted after recovery from infection. Treatment with GW2580 during infection suppressed the expression of genes associated with glial activation and partially restored OL-specific transcripts to baseline levels. Finally, conditioned medium from activated microglia reduced OL-gene expression in primary OLs without altering their viability. CONCLUSIONS: These findings show that peripheral respiratory viral infection with IAV is capable of altering OL homeostasis and indicate that microglia activation is likely involved in the process.

Machine learning assisted health viability assay for mouse embryos with artificial confocal microscopy (ACM).

The combination of a good quality embryo and proper maternal health factors promise higher chances of a successful in vitro fertilization (IVF) procedure leading to clinical pregnancy and live birth. Of these two factors, selection of a good embryo is a controllable aspect. The current gold standard in clinical practice is visual assessment of an embryo based on its morphological appearance by trained embryologists. More recently, machine learning has been incorporated into embryo selection "packages". Here, we report a machine-learning assisted embryo health assessment tool utilizing a quantitative phase imaging technique called artificial confocal microscopy (ACM). We present a label-free nucleus detection method with novel quantitative embryo health biomarkers. Two viability assessment models are presented for grading embryos into two classes: healthy/intermediate (H/I) or sick (S) class. The models achieve a weighted F1 score of 1.0 and 0.99 respectively on the in-distribution test set of 72 fixed embryos and a weighted F1 score of 0.9 and 0.95 respectively on the out-of-distribution test dataset of 19 time-instances from 8 live embryos.

Endometriosis leads to central nervous system-wide glial activation in a mouse model of endometriosis.

BACKGROUND: Chronic pelvic pain (CPP) is a common symptom of endometriosis. Women with endometriosis are also at a high risk of suffering from anxiety, depression, and other psychological disorders. Recent studies indicate that endometriosis can affect the central nervous system (CNS). Changes in the functional activity of neurons, functional magnetic resonance imaging signals, and gene expression have been reported in the brains of rat and mouse models of endometriosis. The majority of the studies thus far have focused on neuronal changes, whereas changes in the glial cells in different brain regions have not been studied. METHODS: Endometriosis was induced in female mice (45-day-old; n = 6-11/timepoint) by syngeneic transfer of donor uterine tissue into the peritoneal cavity of recipient animals. Brains, spines, and endometriotic lesions were collected for analysis at 4, 8, 16, and 32 days post-induction. Sham surgery mice were used as controls (n = 6/timepoint). The pain was assessed using behavioral tests. Using immunohistochemistry for microglia marker ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule-1 (IBA1) and machine learning "Weka trainable segmentation" plugin in Fiji, we evaluated the morphological changes in microglia in different brain regions. Changes in glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) for astrocytes, tumor necrosis factor (TNF), and interleukin-6 (IL6) were also evaluated. RESULTS: We observed an increase in microglial soma size in the cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, and hypothalamus of mice with endometriosis compared to sham controls on days 8, 16, and 32. The percentage of IBA1 and GFAP-positive area was increased in the cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, and hypothalamus in mice with endometriosis compared to sham controls on day 16. The number of microglia and astrocytes did not differ between endometriosis and sham control groups. We observed increased TNF and IL6 expression when expression levels from all brain regions were combined. Mice with endometriosis displayed reduced burrowing behavior and hyperalgesia in the abdomen and hind-paw. CONCLUSION: We believe this is the first report of central nervous system-wide glial activation in a mouse model of endometriosis. These results have significant implications for understanding chronic pain associated with endometriosis and other issues such as anxiety and depression in women with endometriosis.

Impact of mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) on the development of mouse embryo in vitro.

Mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) is the most studied metabolite of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), a phthalate found in cosmetics, flooring, paints, and plastics products, including toys and medical tubing. Humans are frequently exposed to this compound due to its ubiquitous presence in our environment. DEHP and MEHP are known to be endocrine-disrupting chemicals and exposure levels have been associated to decreased reproductive success. However, few studies have focused on the direct effects of MEHP on embryos. The present study investigated effects of MEHP (0.1, 1, 10, 100 and 1000 µM) on mice preimplantation embryonic development, evaluating percentage of blastocyst formation, hatching from zona pellucida, methylation-related genes, cell lineage commitment, micronucleation, and adherens junction marker at different stages of development during in vitro culture for 6 days. We show MEHP negatively impacts embryo competence by reducing blastocyst formation and hatching at 100 and 1000 µM. In addition, 100 µM MEHP increases the expression of Tet3 gene in blastocysts, which is related to a reduction of DNA methylation, an important mechanism regulating gene expression. Exposed embryos that completed the hatching process in groups 0.1, 1 and 10 µM MEHP had similar number of inner cell mass and trophectoderm cells compared to the control, while micronucleation occurrence and E-cadherin expression was not affected in exposed morulae by MEHP at 10 or 100 µM. Our results showed that high concentrations of MEHP can negatively impact embryo development. New studies unveiling the mechanism of toxicity involved and encompassing further developmental stages are warranted for further understanding.

Regulation of RNA localization during oocyte maturation by dynamic RNA-ER association and remodeling of the ER.

Asymmetric localization of mRNAs is crucial for cell polarity and cell fate determination. By performing fractionation RNA-seq, we report here that a large number of maternal RNAs are associated with the ER in Xenopus oocytes but are released into the cytosol after oocyte maturation. We provide evidence that the majority of ER-associated RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) remain associated with the ER after oocyte maturation. However, all ER-associated RBPs analyzed exhibit reduced binding to some of their target RNAs after oocyte maturation. Our results further show that the ER is remodeled massively during oocyte maturation, leading to the formation of a widespread tubular ER network in the animal hemisphere that is required for the asymmetric localization of mRNAs in mature eggs. Thus, our findings demonstrate that dynamic regulation of RNA-ER association and remodeling of the ER are important for the asymmetric localization of RNAs during development.

Subchronic exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate differentially affects the colon and ileum in adult female mice.

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a large-molecular-weight phthalate added to plastics to impart versatile properties. DEHP can be found in medical equipment and devices, food containers, building materials, and children's toys. Although DEHP exposure occurs most commonly by ingesting contaminated foods in the majority of the population, its effects on the gastrointestinal tract have not been well studied. Therefore, we analyzed the effects of subchronic exposure to DEHP on the ileum and colon morphology, gene expression, and immune microenvironment. Adult C57BL/6 female mice were orally dosed with corn oil (control, n = 7) or DEHP (0.02, 0.2, or 30 mg/kg, n = 7/treatment dose) for 30-34 days. Mice were euthanized during diestrus, and colon and ileum tissues were collected for RT-qPCR and immunohistochemistry. Subchronic DEHP exposure in the ileum altered the expression of several immune-mediating factors (Muc1, Lyz1, Cldn1) and cell viability factors (Bcl2 and Aifm1). Similarly, DEHP exposure in the colon impacted the gene expression of factors involved in mediating immune responses (Muc3a, Zo2, Ocln, Il6, and Il17a); and also altered the expression of cell viability factors (Ki67, Bcl2, Cdk4, and Aifm1) as well as a specialized epithelial cell marker (Vil1). Immunohistochemical analysis of the ileum showed DEHP increased expression of VIL1, CLDN1, and TNF and decreased number of T-cells in the villi. Histological analysis of the colon showed DEHP altered morphology and reduced cell proliferation. Moreover, in the colon, DEHP increased the expression of MUC2, MUC1, VIL1, CLDN1, and TNF. DEHP also increased the number of T-cells and Type 2 immune cells in the colon. These data suggest that subchronic DEHP exposure differentially affects the ileum and colon and alters colonic morphology and the intestinal immune microenvironment. These results have important implications for understanding the effects of DEHP on the gastrointestinal system.

Basigin is necessary for normal decidualization of human uterine stromal cells.

STUDY QUESTION: Does basigin (BSG) regulate human endometrial stromal cell (HESC) decidualization in vitro? SUMMARY ANSWER: BSG regulates HESCs proliferation and decidualization. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY: Studies have shown that in the human endometrium, BSG expression is menstrual-cycle dependent and its expression was significantly lower in uterine endometrium during the luteal phase of women experiencing multiple implantation failures after IVF than in women with normal fertility. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION: We utilized a telomerase-immortalized HESCs in an in vitro cell culture model system to investigate whether BSG regulates decidualization of stromal cells. Further, we used microarray analysis to identify changes in the gene expression profile of HESCs treated with BSG small interfering RNA (siRNA). All experiments were repeated at least three times. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS: The effect of BSG knockdown (using siRNA) on HESC proliferation was determined by counting cell number and by tritiated thymidine incorporation assays. The effect of BSG on decidualization of HESCs was determined by RT-qPCR for the decidualization markers insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 1 (IGFBP1) and prolactin (PRL). Immunoblotting was used to determine the effect of BSG siRNA on the expression of MMP-2,3. Microarray analysis was used to identify BSG-regulated genes in HESCs at Day 6 of decidualization. Functional and pathway enrichment analyses were then carried out on the differentially expressed genes (DEGs). The STRING online database was used to analyze protein-protein interaction (PPI) between DEG-encoded proteins, and CytoScape software was used to visualize the interaction. MCODE and CytoHubba were used to construct functional modules and screen hub genes separately. Several BSG-regulated genes identified in the microarray analysis were confirmed by qPCR. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE: Knockdown of BSG expression in cultured stromal cells by siRNA significantly (P < 0.05) inhibited HESC proliferation, disrupted cell decidualization and down-regulated MMP-2 and MMP-3 expression. Microarray analysis identified 721 genes that were down-regulated, and 484 genes up-regulated with P < 0.05 in BSG siRNA treated HESCs. GO term enrichment analysis showed that the DEGs were significantly enriched in cell communication, signaling transduction and regulation, response to stimulus, cell adhesion, anatomical structure morphogenesis, extracellular matrix organization, as well as other functional pathways. KEGG pathway analysis identified upregulated gene enriched in pathways such as the MAPK signaling pathway, colorectal cancer, melanoma and axon guidance. In contrast, downregulated genes were mainly enriched in pathways including ECM-receptor interaction, PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, pathways in cancer, antigen processing, type I diabetes mellitus and focal adhesion. The top 10 hub nodes were identified using 12 methods analyses. The hub genes that showed up in two methods were screened out. Among these genes, upregulated genes included EGFR, HSP90AA1, CCND1, PXN, PRKACB, MGAT4A, EVA1A, LGALS1, STC2, HSPA4; downregulated genes included WNT4/5, FOXO1, CDK1, PIK3R1, IGF1, JAK2, LAMB1, ITGAV, HGF, MXRA8, TMEM132A, UBE2C, QSOX1, ERBB2, GNB4, HSP90B1, LAMB2, LAMC1 and ITGA1. Hub genes and module genes involved in the top three modules of PPI analysis were analyzed through the string database. Analysis showed that hub and module genes were related mainly to the WNT signaling pathway, PI3K-AKT signaling pathway and pathways in cancer. LARGE SCALE DATA: The microarray data set generated in this study has been published online at databank.illinois.edu. LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION: Most of the findings were obtained using an in vitro cell culture system that may not necessarily reflect in vivo functions. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS: Our results demonstrate that BSG plays a vital role in decidualization and that downregulation of BSG in the uterine endometrium may be associated with infertility in women. The identified hub genes and pathways increase our understanding of the genetic etiology and molecular mechanisms underlying the regulation of decidualization by BSG. STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S): This work was supported by the NIH U54 HD40093 (R.A.N.). The authors have no competing interests to declare.

Midlife Urinary Phthalate Metabolite Concentrations and Prior Uterine Fibroid Diagnosis.

Fibroid etiology is poorly understood but is likely hormonally mediated. Therefore, we evaluated associations between midlife phthalates (hormone-altering chemicals) and prior fibroid diagnosis, and considered differences by weight gain status. Women (ages: 45−54; n = 754) self-reported past fibroid diagnosis. We pooled 1−4 urines collected after fibroid diagnosis over the consecutive weeks to analyze nine phthalate metabolites and calculate relevant molar sums (e.g., di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, ΣDEHP; anti-androgenic phthalates, ΣAA; all metabolites, ΣPhthalates). Using Poisson regression, we evaluated associations between phthalate biomarkers and the risk of having fibroid diagnosis. We explored if associations differed by weight gain from age 18 to 45−54 or in women diagnosed with fibroids within 5 years of phthalate assessment. Our major finding was that women had a 13% (RR: 1.13; 95%CI: 1.02, 1.26) and 16% (RR: 1.16; 95% CI: 1.03, 1.31) greater risk of prior fibroid diagnosis for each two-fold increase in ΣDEHP or ΣAA, respectively. These associations were strongest in women who became overweight/obese from age 18 to 45−54 and in those diagnosed <5 years before phthalate assessment. Based on these results, prospective studies should corroborate our findings related to associations between phthalates and fibroids, and may consider evaluating the role that weight gain may play in these associations.

Isolation of DiNP-Degrading Microbes from the Mouse Colon and the Influence DiNP Exposure Has on the Microbiota, Intestinal Integrity, and Immune Status of the Colon.

Di-isononyl phthalate (DiNP) is a plasticizer used to impart flexibility or stability in a variety of products including polyvinyl chloride, cable coatings, artificial leather, and footwear. Previous studies have examined the impact of DiNP on gut integrity and the colonic immune microenvironment, but this study further expands the research by examining whether DiNP exposure alters the colonic microbiota and various immune markers. Previous studies have also revealed that environmental microbes degrade various phthalates, but no studies have examined whether anaerobic gut bacteria can degrade DiNP. Thus, this study tested the hypothesis that DiNP exposure alters the gut microbiota and immune-related factors, and that anaerobic bacteria in the gut can utilize DiNP as the sole carbon source. To test this hypothesis, adult female mice were orally dosed with corn oil or various doses of DiNP for 10-14 consecutive days. After the treatment period, mice were euthanized during diestrus. Colonic contents were collected for full-length 16S rRNA gene sequencing to identify the bacteria in the colon contents. Sanger sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene was used to identify bacteria that were able to grow in Bacteroides minimal media with DiNP as the sole carbon source. Colon tissues were collected for immunohistochemistry of immune(-related) factors. An environmentally relevant dose of DiNP (200 µg/kg) significantly increased a Lachnoclostridium taxon and decreased Blautia compared to the control. Collectively, minimal changes in the colonic microbiota were observed as indicated by non-significant beta-diversities between DiNP treatments and control. Furthermore, three strains of anaerobic bacteria derived from the colon were identified to use DiNP as the sole carbon source. Interestingly, DiNP exposure did not alter protein levels of interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor alpha, claudin-1, and mucin-1 compared to the control. Collectively, these findings show that DiNP exposure alters the gut microbiota and that the gut contains DiNP-degrading microbes.

Uterine Fibroids: Hiding in Plain Sight.

Uterine fibroids (leiomyomas) are present in >75% of women and can cause serious morbidity. They are by far the leading cause of hysterectomy. Fibroids are a complex mixture of cells that include fibroblasts and smooth muscle cells. Rich in extracellular matrix, they typically arise through somatic mutations, most commonly MED12. Their lack of growth inhibition and their ability to have facets of malignancy yet be histologically and biologically benign provide opportunities to explore basic processes. To date, the mechanisms responsible for growth and development of leiomyomas are an enigma. This review provides an overview of current understanding and future directions for clinical and basic research of fibroids.

Subacute Exposure to an Environmentally Relevant Dose of Di-(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate during Gestation Alters the Cecal Microbiome, but Not Pregnancy Outcomes in Mice.

Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) is a plasticizer commonly found in polyvinyl chloride, medical equipment, and food packaging. DEHP has been shown to target the reproductive system and alter the gut microbiome in humans and experimental animals. However, very little is known about the impact of DEHP-induced microbiome changes and its effects during pregnancy. Thus, the objective of this study was to investigate the effects of DEHP exposure during pregnancy on the cecal microbiome and pregnancy outcomes. Specifically, this study tested the hypothesis that subacute exposure to DEHP during pregnancy alters the cecal microbiome in pregnant mice, leading to changes in birth outcomes. To test this hypothesis, pregnant dams were orally exposed to corn oil vehicle or 20 µg/kg/day DEHP for 10 days and euthanized 21 days after their last dose. Cecal contents were collected for 16S Illumina and shotgun metagenomic sequencing. Fertility studies were also conducted to examine whether DEHP exposure impacted birth outcomes. Subacute exposure to environmentally relevant doses of DEHP in pregnant dams significantly increased alpha diversity and significantly altered beta diversity. Furthermore, DEHP exposure during pregnancy significantly increased the relative abundance of Bacteroidetes and decreased the relative abundance of Firmicutes and Deferribacteres compared with controls. The affected taxonomic families included Deferribacteraceae, Lachnospiraceae, and Mucisprillum. In addition to changes in the gut microbiota, DEHP exposure significantly altered 14 functional pathways compared with the control. Finally, DEHP exposure did not significantly impact the fertility and birth outcomes compared with the control. Collectively, these data indicate that DEHP exposure during pregnancy shifts the cecal microbiome, but the shifts do not impact fertility and birth outcomes.