Geant4 based Monte Carlo simulation for verifying the modified sum-peak method.

The modified sum-peak method can practically estimate radioactivity by using solely the peak and the sum peak count rate. In order to efficiently verify the method in various experimental conditions, a Geant4 based Monte Carlo simulation for a high-purity germanium detector system was applied. The energy spectra in the detector were simulated for a 60Co point source in various source to detector distances. The calculated radioactivity shows good agreement with the number of decays in the simulation.

Proposal of a New Estimation Method of Colonization Rate of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in the Roots of Chengiopanax sciadophylloides.

This study proposed a rapid method to quantify the colonization rate of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in plant roots. The method involved the use of an image analysis software (WinRHIZO Pro). The colonization rate is defined as the ratio of the fungal body to the plant root area in a micrograph. Three seedlings of Chengiopanax sciadophylloides, a woody species that accumulates radiocesium, were collected from a secondary forest in the Yamakiya district of Kawamata, Fukushima Prefecture during May-September 2014. The colonization of AMF structures was examined under a light microscope, and the percentage of colonization was determined using the WinRHIZO method. The superiority of the new method was verified by comparing with a modified grid-line intersect method. The colonization of AMF was confirmed in all the seedlings, and a significant coefficient of determination (R2 = 0.94) was found with both the methods. The results suggested that the WinRHIZO method is reliable for estimating the colonization of AMF in C. sciadophylloides.

Evaluation of radiocesium concentrations in new leaves of wild plants two years after the Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant accident.

Radiocesium ((137)Cs) transfer to plants immediately after the Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant accident was investigated by collecting newly emerged leaf and soil samples between May 2011 and November 2012 from 20 sites in the Fukushima prefecture. Radiocesium concentrations in leaf and soil samples were measured to calculate concentration ratios (CR). Woody plants exhibited high CR values because (137)Cs deposited on stems and/or leaves were transferred to newly emerging tissues. The CR values in 2012 declined as compared to that in 2011. Exchangeable (137)Cs rates in soil (extraction rate) samples were measured at five sites. These rates decreased at four sites in 2012 and depended on environmental conditions and soil type. Both CR values and extraction rates decreased in 2012. However, CR values reflected the changes in extraction rates and characteristics of each species. Amaranthaceae, Chenopodiaceae, and Polygonaceae, which had been identified as Cs accumulators, presented no clear (137)Cs accumulation ability. In 2012, the perennial plant Houttuynia cordata and deciduous trees Chengiopanax sciadophylloides and Acer crataegifolium displayed high CR values, indicating that these species are (137)Cs accumulators and may be considered as potential species for phytoremediation.

Radiocesium accumulation properties of Chengiopanax sciadophylloides.

Through the assessments of radioactive contamination after the Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant (F1NPP) accident, it has been reported that some sprouts of Chengiopanax sciadophylloides (Franch. et Sav.) at the site contained radiocesium (((134),)(137)Cs) at higher concentrations than the other plants. To assess the phytoremediation properties of C. sciadophylloides for (137)Cs decontamination, we aimed to quantify the (137)Cs accumulation in C. sciadophylloides. We measured the (137)Cs concentrations in various organs of C. sciadophylloides collected from the forest in the town of Kawamata, Fukushima prefecture, together with the concentrations of other elements [potassium (K), rubidium, (133)Cs, calcium, strontium, and manganese] present. In addition, we compared the foliar concentrations of these elements in C. sciadophylloides with those in four different deciduous tree species. The mean of foliar (137)Cs concentration in C. sciadophylloides was 28.1 kBq kg(-1) DW, one order of magnitude higher than that found in the other species. The (137)Cs concentrations were in the order of leaves > bark > wood. The wood of the treetop, leaf scars, and roots contained higher amounts of (137)Cs than that of the trunk. From the distribution of (137)Cs in C. sciadophylloides, we confirmed that (137)Cs tends to accumulate in the young growing parts. The difference in the distribution of (137)Cs and (133)Cs indicated that surface uptake of (137)Cs occurs. A significant correlation between K and (137)Cs concentrations in each organ was found, which suggested that (137)Cs in the plant body is transferred through the same pathway as K. On the other hand, there was no correlation between foliar K and (137)Cs concentrations, implying that the uptake ratio of K to (137)Cs was different for each individual. To determine the factors driving specific (137)Cs accumulation and/or the variability of the ratio between K and (137)Cs, the distribution of (137)Cs and the root in soil, the difference of the expression of transporter, and the existence of mycorrhizal fungi should be considered. However, further research is required.

Development of a prototype Open-close positron emission tomography system.

We developed a prototype positron emission tomography (PET) system based on a new concept called Open-close PET, which has two modes: open and close-modes. In the open-mode, the detector ring is separated into two halved rings and subject is imaged with the open space and projection image is formed. In the close-mode, the detector ring is closed to be a regular circular ring, and the subject can be imaged without an open space, and so reconstructed images can be made without artifacts. The block detector of the Open-close PET system consists of two scintillator blocks that use two types of gadolinium orthosilicate (GSO) scintillators with different decay times, angled optical fiber-based image guides, and a flat panel photomultiplier tube. The GSO pixel size was 1.6 × 2.4 × 7 mm and 8 mm for fast (35 ns) and slow (60 ns) GSOs, respectively. These GSOs were arranged into an 11 × 15 matrix and optically coupled in the depth direction to form a depth-of-interaction detector. The angled optical fiber-based image guides were used to arrange the two scintillator blocks at 22.5° so that they can be arranged in a hexadecagonal shape with eight block detectors to simplify the reconstruction algorithm. The detector ring was divided into two halves to realize the open-mode and set on a mechanical stand with which the distance between the two parts can be manually changed. The spatial resolution in the close-mode was 2.4-mm FWHM, and the sensitivity was 1.7% at the center of the field-of-view. In both the close- and open-modes, we made sagittal (y-z plane) projection images between the two halved detector rings. We obtained reconstructed and projection images of (18)F-NaF rat studies and proton-irradiated phantom images. These results indicate that our developed Open-close PET is useful for some applications such as proton therapy as well as other applications such as molecular imaging.

Development of a PET/Cerenkov-light hybrid imaging system.

PURPOSE: Cerenkov-light imaging is a new molecular imaging technology that detects visible photons from high-speed electrons using a high sensitivity optical camera. However, the merit of Cerenkov-light imaging remains unclear. If a PET/Cerenkov-light hybrid imaging system were developed, the merit of Cerenkov-light imaging would be clarified by directly comparing these two imaging modalities. METHODS: The authors developed and tested a PET/Cerenkov-light hybrid imaging system that consists of a dual-head PET system, a reflection mirror located above the subject, and a high sensitivity charge coupled device (CCD) camera. The authors installed these systems inside a black box for imaging the Cerenkov-light. The dual-head PET system employed a 1.2×1.2×10 mm3 GSO arranged in a 33 × 33 matrix that was optically coupled to a position sensitive photomultiplier tube to form a GSO block detector. The authors arranged two GSO block detectors 10 cm apart and positioned the subject between them. The Cerenkov-light above the subject is reflected by the mirror and changes its direction to the side of the PET system and is imaged by the high sensitivity CCD camera. RESULTS: The dual-head PET system had a spatial resolution of ∼1.2 mm FWHM and sensitivity of ∼0.31% at the center of the FOV. The Cerenkov-light imaging system's spatial resolution was ∼275 µm for a 22Na point source. Using the combined PET/Cerenkov-light hybrid imaging system, the authors successfully obtained fused images from simultaneously acquired images. The image distributions are sometimes different due to the light transmission and absorption in the body of the subject in the Cerenkov-light images. In simultaneous imaging of rat, the authors found that 18F-FDG accumulation was observed mainly in the Harderian gland on the PET image, while the distribution of Cerenkov-light was observed in the eyes. CONCLUSIONS: The authors conclude that their developed PET/Cerenkov-light hybrid imaging system is useful to evaluate the merits and the limitations of Cerenkov-light imaging in molecular imaging research.

Ultrahigh-resolution Cerenkov-light imaging system for positron radionuclides: potential applications and limitations.

OBJECTIVE: Cerenkov-light imaging provides inherently high resolution because the light is emitted near the positron radionuclide. However, the magnitude for the high spatial resolution of Cerenkov-light imaging is unclear. Its potential molecular imaging applications also remain unclear. We developed an ultrahigh-resolution Cerenkov-light imaging system, measured its spatial resolution, and explored its applications to molecular imaging research. METHODS: Our Cerenkov-light imaging system consists of a high-sensitivity charged-coupled device camera (Hamamatsu Photonics ORCA2-ER) and a bright lens (Xenon 0.95/25). An extension ring was inserted between them to magnify the subject. A ~100-µm-diameter (22)Na point source was made and imaged by the system. For applications of Cerenkov-light imaging, we conducted (18)F-FDG administered in vivo, ex vivo whole brain, and sliced brain imaging of rats. RESULTS: We obtained spatial resolution of ~220 µm for a (22)Na point source with our developed imaging system. The (18)F-FDG rat head images showed high light intensity in the eyes for the Cerenkov-light images, although there was no accumulation in these parts in the PET images. The sliced rat brain showed much higher spatial resolution for the Cerenkov-light images compared with CdWO4 scintillator-based autoradiography, although some contrast decrease was observed for them. CONCLUSION: Even though the Cerenkov-light images showed ultrahigh resolution of ~220 µm, their distribution and contrast were sometimes different from the actual positron accumulation in the subjects. Care must be taken when evaluating positron distribution from Cerenkov-light images. However, the ultrahigh resolution of Cerenkov-light imaging will be useful for transparent subjects including phantom studies.

Low background high efficiency radiocesium detection system based on positron emission tomography technology.

After the 2011 nuclear power plant accident at Fukushima, radiocesium contamination in food became a serious concern in Japan. However, low background and high efficiency radiocesium detectors are expensive and huge, including semiconductor germanium detectors. To solve this problem, we developed a radiocesium detector by employing positron emission tomography (PET) technology. Because (134)Cs emits two gamma photons (795 and 605 keV) within 5 ps, they can selectively be measured with coincidence. Such major environmental gamma photons as (40)K (1.46 MeV) are single photon emitters and a coincidence measurement reduces the detection limit of radiocesium detectors. We arranged eight sets of Bi4Ge3O12 (BGO) scintillation detectors in double rings (four for each ring) and measured the coincidence between these detectors using PET data acquisition system. A 50 × 50 × 30 mm BGO was optically coupled to a 2 in. square photomultiplier tube (PMT). By measuring the coincidence, we eliminated most single gamma photons from the energy distribution and only detected those from (134)Cs at an average efficiency of 12%. The minimum detectable concentration of the system for the 100 s acquisition time is less than half of the food monitor requirements in Japan (25 Bq/kg). These results show that the developed radiocesium detector based on PET technology is promising to detect low level radiocesium.

High sensitive airborne radioiodine monitor.

Airborne radioiodine monitoring includes a problem in that commercial radioactive gas monitors have inadequate sensitivity. To solve this problem, we designed a highly sensitive monitoring system. The higher counting efficiency and lower background made it possible to perform the low-level monitoring. The characteristics of the system were investigated using gaseous (125)I. The minimum detectable activity concentration was 1 × 10(-4)Bq cm(-3) for 1 min counting, which is one tenth of the legal limit for the radiation controlled areas in Japan.

Distribution of thermal neutron flux around a PET cyclotron.

The number of positron emission tomography (PET) examinations has greatly increased world-wide. Since positron emission nuclides for the PET examinations have short half-lives, they are mainly produced using on-site cyclotrons. During the production of the nuclides, significant quantities of neutrons are generated from the cyclotrons. Neutrons have potential to activate the materials around the cyclotrons and cause exposure to the staff. To investigate quantities and distribution of the thermal neutrons, thermal neutron fluxes were measured around a PET cyclotron in a laboratory associating with a hospital. The cyclotron accelerates protons up to 18 MeV, and the mean particle current is 20 µA. The neutron fluxes were measured during both 18F production and C production. Gold foils and thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD) badges were used to measure the neutron fluxes. The neutron fluxes in the target box averaged 9.3 × 10(6) cm(-2) s(-1) and 1.7 × 10(6) cm(-2) s(-1) during 18F and 11C production, respectively. Those in the cyclotron room averaged 4.1 × 10(5) cm(-2) s(-1) and 1.2 × 10(5) cm(-2) s(-1), respectively. Those outside the concrete wall shielding were estimated as being equal to or less than ∼3 cm s, which corresponded to 0.1 µSv h(-1) in effective dose. The neutron fluxes outside the concrete shielding were confirmed to be quite low compared to the legal limit.

Highly precise measurements of the relative gamma-ray intensities for 56Mn and 72Ga.

Precise relative gamma-ray intensities of 56Mn and 72Ga produced by neutron irradiation of natural Mn3O4 and enriched 71Ga2O3 (99.8%) were measured by an HPGe detector with highly-precisely calibrated detection efficiencies. As both nuclides exhibit no beta branch to the ground state, the absolute emission probabilities of the 846.8 keV gamma ray for 56Mn and 834.0 keV gamma ray for 72Ga were determined to be 0.9888+/-0.0014 and 0.9553+/-0.0005, respectively.

Precise measurement of the emission probability of the 543 keV gamma ray of 199Pt.

199Pt has been produced by neutron irradiation of enriched 198Pt (95.71%) metal powder, and precise measurements have been made of the gamma-ray emission probabilities by means of 4pibeta-gamma coincidence apparatus and a live-timed two-dimensional data-acquisition system. Daughter 199Au decays with a half-life of 3.139 d, and therefore the measured disintegration rate had to be corrected. The absolute emission probability of the 543.0 keV gamma ray was determined to be 0.1174+/-0.0007 from the gamma-ray intensity and the corrected disintegration rate.

In situ calibration of a low-level, in-line, flow liquid scintillation analyzer.

A new method to calibrate a flow liquid scintillation detector in an in-line waste water monitor was developed and its operation was verified. The liquid scintillation detector for detecting low energy beta emitters was one of three detectors of the monitor that aimed to analyze radionuclide concentrations in the waste water before draining it into sewer. To calibrate the liquid scintillation detector, a 20-cm3 calibration vial containing a reference solution was connected to the water sampling channel with a three-way valve. Ten measurements needed to define a quench correction curve required only 200 cm3 solution. The counting efficiencies of the liquid scintillation detector for 3H and for 14C under the average quenching level of the waste waters were estimated at 27% and 58%, respectively. The calibration using the vial took into account the sampling and mixing system, which would not be the case with sealed quenched standards. Although active solution was used, the method was simple, generated little active waste, had low possibility of contamination, and reduced costs and labor for the calibration.

In situ calibration and evaluation of the accuracy of a waste water monitoring system.

A new method to estimate the reliability of a waste water monitoring system was developed and substantiated. To estimate the reliability means (1) to verify the representativeness of the sample fed into the monitoring system, and (2) to calibrate the detectors of the monitoring system. To verify the representativeness, test water spiked with 32P was prepared in a storage tank, and the monitoring system was operated. For all of the experiments, the radioactivity concentrations of the water fed into the monitoring system agreed well with those of the water in the storage tank at 725 +/- 45 s after the start of the sampling pump. Therefore, the representativeness was verified. Calibration was carried out with active water in the storage tank and in a specially designed calibration tank. The efficiency of a plastic scintillation detector (PSD), one of the detectors used in the monitoring system, for 32P was determined to be 4.91 +/- 0.10%. Using the calibration tank significantly reduced the cost and labor for calibration. In addition, calibration with natural potassium (40K) proved to be effective for periodic checks of the detector.