Understanding the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and its control measures on women and children: A Zimbabwe case study.

COVID-19 presented countries with unprecedented health policy challenges. For low-income countries in particular, policymakers had to contend with both the direct threats posed by COVID-19 as well as the social, educational, and economic harms associated with lockdown and other infection prevention and control measures. We present a holistic and contextualised case study of the direct and indirect impacts of COVID-19 on women and children, with some assessment of their uneven distribution across socio-economic, age and gender groups. We used different types of primary and secondary data from multiple sources to produce a holistic descriptive analysis. Primary data included: qualitative data obtained from 28 in-depth interviews of key informants, six focus group discussions; and 40 household interviews. We also extracted data from government reports and announcements, the District Health Information Software version 2 (DHIS2), newspaper articles and social media, as well as from published research articles. Our findings show that the direct and indirect adverse impacts of COVID-19 were compounded by many years of severe political economic challenges, and consequent deterioration of the healthcare system. The indirect effects of the pandemic had the most severe impacts on the poorest segment of society and widened age and gender inequalities. The pandemic and its accompanying infection prevention and control measures negatively affected health service delivery and uptake. The management of COVID-19 presented enormous challenges to policymakers and public health specialists. These included managing the greatest tension between direct and indirect harms; short-term and long-term effects; and the unequal distribution of harms across different segments of society.

Bacterial vaginosis in pregnant women: A comparison of the Nugent Score with a multiplex PCR.

We evaluated the Nugent score against a multiplex real-time PCR (reference) for diagnosing bacterial vaginosis (BV) in 140 pregnant women. The Nugent score had a sensitivity of 60 %, a specificity of 81 % and a negative predictive value of 92 % - therefore a tool to rule out BV in pregnant women.

Evaluation of a comprehensive health check offered to frontline health workers in Zimbabwe.

Health workers are essential for a functioning healthcare system, and their own health is often not addressed. During the COVID-19 pandemic health workers were at high risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection whilst coping with increased healthcare demand. Here we report the development, implementation, and uptake of an integrated health check combining SARS-CoV-2 testing with screening for other communicable and non-communicable diseases for health workers in Zimbabwe during the COVID-19 pandemic. Health checks were offered to health workers in public and private health facilities from July 2020 to June 2022. Data on the number of health workers accessing the service and yield of screening was collected. Workshops and in-depth interviews were conducted to explore the perceptions and experiences of clients and service providers. 6598 health workers across 48 health facilities accessed the service. Among those reached, 5215 (79%) were women, the median age was 37 (IQR: 29-44) years and the largest proportion were nurses (n = 2092, 32%). 149 (2.3%) healthcare workers tested positive for SARS-CoV-2. Uptake of screening services was almost 100% for all screened conditions except HIV. The most common conditions detected through screening were elevated blood pressure (n = 1249; 19%), elevated HbA1c (n = 428; 7.7%) and common mental disorder (n = 645; 9.8%). Process evaluation showed high acceptability of the service. Key enablers for health workers accessing the service included free and comprehensive service provision, and availability of reliable point-of-care screening methods. Implementation of a comprehensive health check for health workers was feasible, acceptable, and effective, even during a pandemic. Conventional occupational health programmes focus on infectious diseases. In a society where even health workers cannot afford health care, free comprehensive occupational health services may address unmet needs in prevention, diagnosis, and treatment for chronic non-communicable conditions.

Exploring COVID-19 vaccine uptake among healthcare workers in Zimbabwe: A mixed methods study.

With COVID-19 no longer categorized as a public health emergency of international concern, vaccination strategies and priority groups for vaccination have evolved. Africa Centres for Diseases Prevention and Control proposed the '100-100-70%' strategy which aims to vaccinate all healthcare workers, all vulnerable groups, and 70% of the general population. Understanding whether healthcare workers were reached during previous vaccination campaigns and what can be done to address concerns, anxieties, and other influences on vaccine uptake, will be important to optimally plan how to achieve these ambitious targets. In this mixed-methods study, between June 2021 and July 2022 a quantitative survey was conducted with healthcare workers accessing a comprehensive health check in Zimbabwe to determine whether and, if so, when they had received a COVID-19 vaccine. Healthcare workers were categorized as those who had received the vaccine 'early' (before 30.06.2021) and those who had received it 'late' (after 30.06.2021). In addition, 17 in-depth interviews were conducted to understand perceptions and beliefs about COVID-19 vaccines. Of the 3,086 healthcare workers employed at 43 facilities who participated in the study, 2,986 (97%, 95% CI [92%-100%]) reported that they had received at least one vaccine dose. Geographical location, older age, higher educational attainment and having a chronic condition was associated with receiving the vaccine early. Qualitatively, (mis)information, infection risk perception, quasi-mandatory vaccination requirements, and legitimate concerns such as safety and efficacy influenced vaccine uptake. Meeting the proposed 100-100-70 target entails continued emphasis on strong communication while engaging meaningfully with healthcare workers' concerns. Mandatory vaccination may undermine trust and should not be a substitute for sustained engagement.

The effect of a comprehensive typhoid conjugate vaccine campaign on antimicrobial prescribing in children in Harare, Zimbabwe: a mixed methods study.

BACKGROUND: Vaccines prevent infections and could subsequently reduce antimicrobial use. A 1-week mass vaccination campaign was done with Typbar-TCV (Bharat Biotech, Hyderabad, India) between Feb 25 and March 4, 2019. We investigated whether this typhoid conjugate vaccine campaign could affect antimicrobial prescribing in children presenting to primary care in Harare, Zimbabwe. METHODS: In this mixed methods study, data for acute paediatric outpatient consultations between Jan 1, 2018, and March 31, 2020, were collected from five clinics in Harare. Interrupted time series analysis was done to compare prescription data before and after the campaign. To contextualise findings, qualitative data were collected between April 20, 2021, and July 20, 2022, comprising ethnographic research (ie, workshops, surveys, observations, and interviews) in 14 clinics. Ethnographic data were used for thematic analysis. The primary outcome was monthly antimicrobial prescriptions in children aged 6 months to 15 years, normalised by the number of trauma events in all age groups. FINDINGS: In the data collection period, 27 107 paediatric consultations were recorded. 17 951 (66·2%) of 27 107 children were prescribed antimicrobials. Despite the perceived reduction in typhoid cases and a decreasing trend in the prescription of antimicrobials commonly used to treat typhoid (ie, ciprofloxacin and azithromycin), mass vaccination with Typbar-TCV did not affect the total rate of antimicrobials (adjusted rate ratio, 1·20, 95% CI 0·70-2·05, p=0·51) or the rate of typhoid antimicrobials prescribed (0·93, 0·44-1·96, p=0·85). Unsafe water sources and insufficient diagnostic services were reported to contribute to the continued disease burden and antimicrobial prescription. INTERPRETATION: Non-specific febrile illness caused by confirmed or suspected typhoid is a common cause of antimicrobial use in endemic areas. Although effective in preventing typhoid fever, we were unable to identify any effect of Typbar-TCV on antimicrobial prescribing. Ethnographic research showed the effect of contextual factors on antimicrobial prescribing, including concerns regarding safe water access, appropriate sewage disposal, health-care and diagnostic availability. To realise effects beyond disease burden reduction, holistic approaches addressing these concerns are needed so that the value of vaccines mitigating the effects of antimicrobial use as a driver of antimicrobial resistance is fully achieved. FUNDING: Wellcome Trust. TRANSLATION: For the Shona translation of the abstract see Supplementary Materials section.

Exploring COVID-19 vaccine uptake among healthcare workers in Zimbabwe: A mixed methods study.

With COVID-19 no longer categorized as a public health emergency of international concern, vaccination strategies and priority groups for vaccination have evolved. Africa Centers for Diseases Prevention and Control proposed the '100-100-70%' strategy which aims to vaccinate all healthcare workers, all vulnerable groups, and 70% of the general population. Understanding whether healthcare workers were reached during previous vaccination campaigns and what can be done to address concerns, anxieties, and other influences on vaccine uptake, will be important to optimally plan how to achieve these ambitious targets. In this mixed-methods study, between June 2021 and July 2022 a quantitative survey was conducted with healthcare workers accessing a comprehensive health check in Zimbabwe to determine whether and, if so, when they had received a COVID-19 vaccine. Healthcare workers were categorized as those who had received the vaccine 'early' (before 30.06.2021) and those who had received it 'late' (after 30.06.2021). In addition, 17 in-depth interviews were conducted to understand perceptions and beliefs about COVID-19 vaccines. Of the 2905 healthcare workers employed at 37 facilities who participated in the study, 2818 (97%, 95% CI [92%-102%]) reported that they had received at least one vaccine dose. Geographical location, older age, higher educational attainment and having a chronic condition was associated with receiving the vaccine early. Qualitatively, (mis)information, infection risk perception, quasi-mandatory vaccination requirements, and legitimate concerns such as safety and efficacy influenced vaccine uptake. Meeting the proposed 100-100-70 target entails continued emphasis on strong communication while engaging meaningfully with healthcare workers' concerns. Mandatory vaccination may undermine trust and should not be a substitute for sustained engagement.

Zoonotic sources and the spread of antimicrobial resistance from the perspective of low and middle-income countries.

BACKGROUND: Antimicrobial resistance is an increasing challenge in low and middle-income countries as it is widespread in these countries and is linked to an increased mortality. Apart from human and environmental factors, animal-related drivers of antimicrobial resistance in low- and middle-income countries have special features that differ from high-income countries. The aim of this narrative review is to address the zoonotic sources and the spread of antimicrobial resistance from the perspective of low- and middle-income countries. MAIN BODY: Contamination with extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli is highest in poultry (Africa: 8.9-60%, Asia: 53-93%) and there is a risk to import ESBL-producing E. coli through poultry meat in Africa. In aquacultures, the proportion of ESBL-producers among E. coli can be high (27%) but the overall low quality of published studies limit the general conclusion on the impact of aquacultures on human health. ESBL-producing E. coli colonization of wildlife is 1-9% in bats or 2.5-63% birds. Since most of them are migratory animals, they can disperse antimicrobial resistant bacteria over large distances. So-called 'filth flies' are a relevant vector not only of enteric pathogens but also of antimicrobial resistant bacteria in settings where sanitary systems are poor. In Africa, up to 72.5% of 'filth flies' are colonized with ESBL-producing E. coli, mostly conferred by CTX-M (24.4-100%). While methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus plays a minor role in livestock in Africa, it is frequently found in South America in poultry (27%) or pork (37.5-56.5%) but less common in Asia (poultry: 3%, pork: 1-16%). CONCLUSIONS: Interventions to contain the spread of AMR should be tailored to the needs of low- and middle-income countries. These comprise capacity building of diagnostic facilities, surveillance, infection prevention and control in small-scale farming.

Global prevalence of hepatitis B or hepatitis C infection among patients with tuberculosis disease: systematic review and meta-analysis.

Background: There is a substantial overlap in the epidemiology of chronic hepatitis B (HBV), hepatitis C (HCV) and tuberculosis (TB) due to overlapping risk factors. Testing for viral hepatitis is not widely recommended for patients with TB. The aim of this systematic review was to evaluate the global prevalence of chronic viral hepatitis infection among patients with TB. Methods: MEDLINE, EMBASE, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, African Journals Online, LILACS, and country TB reports were searched for studies published between January 1st, 2011 and June 17th 2021. Random-effects meta-analyses for proportions were conducted to obtain pooled prevalences. The prevalence of chronic HBV/HCV infection among patients with TB was also compared to that in the general population. The protocol was registered on PROSPERO (CRD42021276468). Findings: This analysis included 127 studies (83 for both HBV and HCV, 28 for HBV only, and 25 for HCV only) and data from 94,936 patients. The global pooled seroprevalence was 5.8% (95% CI 5.0-6.8) for HBs-antigen and 10.3% (95% CI 8.4-12.3) for HCV-antibodies. Pooled prevalence was highest in the WHO African Region for HBV at 7.8% (95% CI 5.2-10.9) and in the WHO European Region at 17.5% (95% CI 12.2-23.5) for HCV. In studies among TB patients who inject drugs, HCV prevalence was 92.5% (95% CI 80.8-99.0). Pooled HCV-antibody seroprevalence among patients with TB was higher than in the general population in all six WHO regions while HBs-antigen seroprevalence was higher in 3/6 regions. Interpretation: This review highlights the syndemicity of chronic viral hepatitis and TB and suggests that routine testing for hepatitis upon TB diagnosis may be justified. The prevalence of chronic HBV and HCV infections was higher among patients with TB than in the general population. Funding: This study was study was funded by the Global Tuberculosis Programme, World Health Organization.

Does pre-incubation in selective-enrichment media improve the detection of diarrheagenic Escherichia coli using the RIDA®GENE PCR?

We aimed to investigate whether a selective pre-PCR enrichment step improves test performance of RIDA®GENE EHEC/EPEC to detect diarrheagenic Escherichia coli from stool samples. Each of the 250 stool samples was analyzed for the presence of stx1/2 and eae both with and without pre-PCR enrichment in selective broth. In comparison to a reference method, sensitivities for stx1/2 and eae with and without pre-PCR enrichment were 84% (95%CI 70-93) and 89% (stx1/2, 95%CI 76-96), and 71% (95%CI 58-81) and 72% (eae, 95%CI 60-82), respectively. Specificity exceeded 97% for both methods and target genes. In summary, pre-PCR broth enrichment did not improve test performance.

Diagnostic performance of the AID line probe assay in the detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and drug resistance in Romanian patients with presumed TB.

BACKGROUND: The AID line probe assay has shown promising evaluation data on the detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis as well as 1st- and 2nd-line drug resistance, using isolates and selected clinical samples in previous studies. METHODS: The diagnostic performance of three AID-modules (AID INH/RIF, AID FQ/EMB and AID AG) was analyzed in sputum samples from patients with presumed tuberculosis against culture methods and phenotypic drug resistance as reference standards. RESULTS: 59 patients had culture-confirmed tuberculosis. All AID modules showed moderate sensitivity (46/59, 78.0%, 65.3-87.7) and very good specificity (100%, 95.5%, 93.7%). There was a high proportion of invalid tests, resulting in 32.6%, 78.3% and 19.6% of 46 AID-positive tuberculosis cases, who could not be assessed for drug resistance by the AID INH/RIF-, AID FQ/EM- and AID AG-module, respectively. A small number of patients showed drug resistance by reference standards: Three MDR-TB cases plus three, one and one patients with resistance to streptomycin, fluoroquinolones and aminoglycosides, respectively. The AID-assay detected all MDR-TB cases, two of three streptomycin-resistant TB cases, one of one of fluoroquinolone-resistant and missed one aminoglycoside-resistant TB case. DISCUSSION: The high proportion of invalid results precludes the use of the AID-assay from direct sputum-based tuberculosis and drug-resistance testing.

Psychological distress among healthcare workers accessing occupational health services during the COVID-19 pandemic in Zimbabwe.

BACKGROUND: Healthcare workers (HCWs) have experienced anxiety and psychological distress during the COVID-19 pandemic. We established and report findings from an occupational health programme for HCWs in Zimbabwe that offered screening for SARS-CoV-2 with integrated screening for comorbidities including common mental disorder (CMD) and referral for counselling. METHODS: Quantitative outcomes were fearfulness about COVID-19, the Shona Symptom Questionnaire (SSQ-14) score (cutpoint 8/14) and the number and proportion of HCWs offered referral for counselling, accepting referral and counselled. We used chi square tests to identify factors associated with fearfulness, and logistic regression was used to model the association of fearfulness with wave, adjusting for variables identified using a DAG. Qualitative data included 18 in-depth interviews, two workshops conducted with HCWs and written feedback from counsellors, analysed concurrently with data collection using thematic analysis. RESULTS: Between 27 July 2020-31 July 2021, spanning three SARS-CoV-2 waves, the occupational health programme was accessed by 3577 HCWs from 22 facilities. The median age was 37 (IQR 30-43) years, 81.9% were women, 41.7% said they felt fearful about COVID-19 and 12.1% had an SSQ-14 score ≥ 8. A total of 501 HCWs were offered referral for counselling, 78.4% accepted and 68.9% had ≥1 counselling session. Adjusting for setting and role, wave 2 was associated with increased fearfulness over wave 1 (OR = 1.26, 95% CI 1.00-1.60). Qualitative data showed high levels of anxiety, psychosomatic symptoms and burnout related to the pandemic. Mental wellbeing was affected by financial insecurity, unmet physical health needs and inability to provide quality care within a fragile health system. CONCLUSIONS: HCWs in Zimbabwe experience a high burden of mental health symptoms, intensified by the COVID-19 pandemic. Sustainable mental health interventions must be multisectoral addressing mental, physical and financial wellbeing.

"It was difficult to offer same day results": evaluation of community-based point-of-care testing for sexually transmitted infections among youth using the GeneXpert platform in Zimbabwe.

BACKGROUND: Point-of-care testing for sexually transmitted infections (STIs) may improve diagnosis and treatment of STIs in low- and middle-income counties. We explored the facilitators and barriers to point-of-care testing for Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) and Neisseria gonorrhoea (NG) for youth in community-based settings in Zimbabwe. METHODS: This study was nested within a cluster randomised trial of community-based delivery of integrated HIV and sexual and reproductive health services for youth aged 16 to 24 years. On-site CT/NG testing on urine samples using the Xpert® CT/NG test was piloted in four intervention clusters, with testing performed by service providers. On-site testing was defined as sample processing on the same day and site as sample collection. Outcomes included proportion of tests processed on-site, time between sample collection and collection of results, and proportion of clients receiving treatment. In-depth interviews were conducted with nine service providers and three staff members providing study co-ordination or laboratory support to explore facilitators and barriers to providing on-site CT/NG testing. RESULTS: Of 847 Xpert tests, 296 (35.0%) were performed on-site. Of these, 61 (20.6%) were positive for CT/NG; one (1.6%) received same day aetiological treatment; 33 (54.1%) presented later for treatment; and 5 (8.2%) were treated as a part of syndromic management. There was no difference in the proportion of clients who were treated whether their sample was processed on or off-site (64% (39/61) vs 60% (66/110); p = 0.61). The median (IQR) number of days between sample collection and collection of positive results was 14 (7-35) and 14 (7-52.5) for samples processed on and off-site, respectively, The interviews revealed four themes related to the provision of on-site testing associated with the i) diagnostic device ii) environment, iii) provider, and iv) clients. Some of the specific barriers identified included insufficient testing capacity, inadequate space, as well as reluctance of clients to wait for their results. CONCLUSIONS: In addition to research to optimise the implementation of point-of-care tests for STIs in resource-limited settings, the development of new platforms to reduce analytic time will be necessary to scale up STI testing and reduce the attrition between testing and treatment. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Registered in clinical trials.gov ( NCT03719521 ).

The Impact of Interventions to Prevent Neonatal Healthcare-associated Infections in Low- and Middle-income Countries: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: Clinically suspected and laboratory-confirmed bloodstream infections are frequent causes of morbidity and mortality during neonatal care. The most effective infection prevention and control interventions for neonates in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) are unknown. AIM: To identify effective interventions in the prevention of hospital-acquired bloodstream infections in LMIC neonatal units. METHODS: Medline, PUBMED, the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, EMBASE and PsychInfo (January 2003 to October 2020) were searched to identify studies reporting single or bundled interventions for prevention of bloodstream infections in LMIC neonatal units. RESULTS: Our initial search identified 5206 articles; following application of filters, 27 publications met the inclusion and Integrated Quality Criteria for the Review of Multiple Study Designs assessment criteria and were summarized in the final analysis. No studies were carried out in low-income countries, only 1 in Sub-Saharan Africa and just 2 in multiple countries. Of the 18 single-intervention studies, most targeted skin (n = 4) and gastrointestinal mucosal integrity (n = 5). Whereas emollient therapy and lactoferrin achieved significant reductions in proven neonatal infection, glutamine and mixed probiotics showed no benefit. Chlorhexidine gluconate for cord care and kangaroo mother care reduced infection in individual single-center studies. Of the 9 studies evaluating bundles, most focused on prevention of device-associated infections and achieved significant reductions in catheter- and ventilator-associated infections. CONCLUSIONS: There is a limited evidence base for the effectiveness of infection prevention and control interventions in LMIC neonatal units; bundled interventions targeting device-associated infections were most effective. More multisite studies with robust study designs are needed to inform infection prevention and control intervention strategies in low-resource neonatal units.

Rapid Diagnosis of Recurrent Paucibacillary Tuberculosis.

Introduction: The rapid diagnosis of tuberculosis recurrence can be challenging due to persistently positive detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis-specific DNA from sputum and bronchopulmonary samples in the absence of active disease. Methods: We compared the diagnostic accuracy of the detection of M. tuberculosis-specific DNA by either Xpert (January 2010-June 2018) or Xpert Ultra (July 2018-June 2020) and M. tuberculosis-specific ELISPOT in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) samples with M. tuberculosis culture results from sputum or bronchopulmonary samples in patients with suspected recurrence of pulmonary tuberculosis. Results: Among 44 individuals with previous tuberculosis and a presumptive diagnosis of recurrent pulmonary tuberculosis, 4/44 (9.1%) were diagnosed with recurrent tuberculosis by culture. DNA of M. tuberculosis was detected by Xpert in BAL fluid in 1/4 (25%) individuals with recurrent tuberculosis and in 2/40 (5%) cases with past tuberculosis without recurrence, while BAL-ELISPOT with a cut-off of >4,000 early secretory antigenic target-6-specific or culture filtrate protein-10-specific interferon-γ-producing lymphocytes per 1 million BAL-lymphocytes was positive in 4/4 (100%) individuals with recurrent tuberculosis and in 2/40 (5%) cases of past tuberculosis without recurrence. Conclusion: M. tuberculosis-specific BAL-ELISPOT is more accurate than BAL-Xpert for the diagnosis of paucibacillary tuberculosis recurrence.

Identifying youth at high risk for sexually transmitted infections in community-based settings using a risk prediction tool: a validation study.

BACKGROUND : Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) and Neisseria gonorrhoeae (NG) are the most common bacterial sexually transmitted infections (STIs) worldwide. In the absence of affordable point-of-care STI tests, WHO recommends STI testing based on risk factors. This study aimed to develop a prediction tool with a sensitivity of > 90% and efficiency (defined as the percentage of individuals that are eligible for diagnostic testing) of < 60%. METHODS: This study offered CT/NG testing as part of a cluster-randomised trial of community-based delivery of sexual and reproductive health services to youth aged 16-24 years in Zimbabwe. All individuals accepting STI testing completed an STI risk factor questionnaire. The outcome was positivity for either CT or NG. Backwards-stepwise logistic regression was performed with p ≥ 0.05 as criteria for exclusion. Coefficients of variables included in the final multivariable model were multiplied by 10 to generate weights for a STI risk prediction tool. A maximum likelihood Receiver Operating Characteristics (ROC) model was fitted, with the continuous variable score divided into 15 categories of equal size. Sensitivity, efficiency and number needed to screen were calculated for different cut-points. RESULTS: From 3 December 2019 to 5 February 2020, 1007 individuals opted for STI testing, of whom 1003 (99.6%) completed the questionnaire. CT/NG prevalence was 17.5% (95% CI 15.1, 19.8) (n = 175). CT/NG positivity was independently associated with being female, number of lifetime sexual partners, relationship status, HIV status, self-assessed STI risk and past or current pregnancy. The STI risk prediction score including those variables ranged from 2 to 46 with an area under the ROC curve of 0.72 (95% CI 0.68, 0.76). Two cut-points were chosen: (i) 23 for optimised sensitivity (75.9%) and specificity (59.3%) and (ii) 19 to maximise sensitivity (82.4%) while keeping efficiency at < 60% (59.4%). CONCLUSIONS: The high prevalence of STIs among youth, even in those with no or one reported risk factor, may preclude the use of risk prediction tools for selective STI testing. At a cut-point of 19 one in six young people with STIs would be missed.

Community SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence before and after the second wave of SARS-CoV-2 infection in Harare, Zimbabwe.

BACKGROUND: By the end of July 2021 Zimbabwe, has reported over 100,000 SARS-CoV-2 infections. The true number of SARS-CoV-2 infections is likely to be much higher. We conducted a seroprevalence survey to estimate the prevalence of past SARS-CoV-2 in three high-density communities in Harare, Zimbabwe before and after the second wave of SARS-CoV-2. METHODS: Between November 2020 and April 2021 we conducted a cross-sectional study of randomly selected households in three high-density communities (Budiriro, Highfield and Mbare) in Harare. Consenting participants answered a questionnaire and a dried blood spot sample was taken. Samples were tested for anti-SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid antibodies using the Roche e801 platform. FINDINGS: A total of 2340 individuals participated in the study. SARS-CoV-2 antibody results were available for 70·1% (620/885) and 73·1% (1530/2093) of eligible participants in 2020 and 2021. The median age was 22 (IQR 10-37) years and 978 (45·5%) were men. SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence was 19·0% (95% CI 15·1-23·5%) in 2020 and 53·0% (95% CI 49·6-56·4) in 2021. The prevalence ratio was 2·47 (95% CI 1·94-3·15) comparing 2020 with 2021 after adjusting for age, sex, and community. Almost half of all participants who tested positive reported no symptoms in the preceding six months. INTERPRETATION: Following the second wave, one in two people had been infected with SARS-CoV-2 suggesting high levels of community transmission. Our results suggest that 184,800 (172,900-196,700) SARS-CoV-2 infections occurred in these three communities alone, greatly exceeding the reported number of cases for the whole city. Further seroprevalence surveys are needed to understand transmission during the current third wave despite high prevalence of past infections. FUNDING: GCRF, Government of Canada, Wellcome Trust, Bavarian State Ministry of Sciences, Research, and the Arts.

Sexually transmitted infections and prior antibiotic use as important causes for negative urine cultures among adults presenting with urinary tract infection symptoms to primary care clinics in Zimbabwe: a cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVE: Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are common in primary care. The yield of urine cultures in patients with UTI symptoms can be considerably different between high-income and low-income settings. This study aimed to explore possible causes of negative urine cultures in patients presenting with symptoms of UTI to primary health clinics in Harare. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Nine primary health clinics in Harare, Zimbabwe. PARTICIPANTS: Adults presenting with symptoms of UTIs between March and July 2020. PRIMARY OUTCOME MEASURES: Urine samples underwent dipstick testing, microscopy, culture, and testing for sexually transmitted infections (STIs) using GeneXpert and for the presence of antibiotic residues using an antibiotic bioassay. The primary outcomes were the number and proportion of participants with evidence of STIs, prior antibiotic exposure, leucocyturia and UTIs. RESULTS: The study included 425 participants with a median age of 37.3 years, of whom 275 (64.7%) were women. Leucocyturia was detected in 130 (30.6%, 95% CI 26.2% to 35.2%) participants, and 96 (22.6%, 95% CI 18.7% to 26.9%) had a positive urine culture for a uropathogen. Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Trichomonas vaginalis were detected in 43/425 (10.1%, 95% CI 7.4% to 13.4%), 37/425 (8.7%, 95% CI 6.2% to 11.8%) and 14/175 (8.0%, 95% CI 4.4% to 13.1%) participants, respectively. Overall, 89 (20.9%, 95% CI 17.2% to 25.1%) participants reported either having taken prior antibiotics or having had a positive urine bioassay. In 170 (40.0%, 95% CI 35.3% to 44.8%) participants, all of the tests that were performed were negative. CONCLUSIONS: This study found a high prevalence of STIs and evidence of prior antimicrobial use as possible explanations for the low proportion of positive urine cultures.

Prevalence of ESBL-producing Escherichia coli in adults with and without HIV presenting with urinary tract infections to primary care clinics in Zimbabwe.

BACKGROUND: People living with HIV may be at increased risk for infections with resistant organisms. Infections with ESBL-producing organisms are of particular concern because they limit treatment options for severe Gram-negative infections in low-resource settings. OBJECTIVES: To investigate the association between HIV status and urinary tract infections (UTIs) with ESBL-producing Escherichia coli. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Cross-sectional study enrolling adults presenting with UTI symptoms to primary care clinics in Harare, Zimbabwe. Demographic and clinical data were collected during interviews and a urine sample was collected for culture from each participant. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed according to EUCAST recommendations. RESULTS: Of the 1164 who were enrolled into the study, 783 (64%) were female and 387 (33%) were HIV infected. The median age was 35.8 years. Urine cultures were positive in 338 (29.0%) participants, and the majority of bacterial isolates were E. coli (n = 254, 75.2%). The presence of ESBL was confirmed in 49/254 (19.3%) E. coli. Participants with HIV had a 2.13 (95% CI 1.05-4.32) higher odds of infection with ESBL-producing E. coli than individuals without HIV. Also, the prevalence of resistance to most antimicrobials was higher among participants with HIV. CONCLUSIONS: This study found an association between HIV and ESBL-producing E. coli in patients presenting with symptoms suggestive of UTI to primary care in Harare. HIV status should be considered when prescribing empirical antimicrobial treatment.

Evaluation of the InTray and Compact Dry culture systems for the diagnosis of urinary tract infections in patients presenting to primary health clinics in Harare, Zimbabwe.

Antimicrobial resistance surveillance data is lacking from many resource-limited settings mainly due to limited laboratory testing. Novel culture systems may address some of the limitations of conventional culture media and expand the availability of microbiology services. The aims of this study were to evaluate the performance of InTray COLOREX Screen/ESBL and Compact Dry for the detection of uropathogens and of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing organisms from urine samples. Urines samples were collected from patients presenting with symptoms of urinary tract infection to primary care clinics in Harare. Performance of the InTray COLOREX Screen, ESBL and Compact Dry chromogenic media were compared to the reference of culture using Brilliance UTI agar and conventional antimicrobial susceptibility testing. A total of 414 samples were included in the analysis. Of the included samples, 98 were positive on Brilliance UTI agar and 83 grew Enterobacterales. The sensitivities and specificities for Enterobacterales were 89.2% (95% CI 80.4-94.9) and 98.2% (95% CI 96.1-99.3) for InTray Screen and 95.2% (95% CI 88.1-98.7) and 99.7% (95% CI 98.3-100) for Compact Dry. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases were present in 22 isolates from the Brilliance UTI agar. The sensitivity of the InTray COLOREX ESBL culture plates for the detection of ESBL-producing organisms was 95.5% (95% CI 77.2-99.9) and specificity was 99.5% (95% CI 98.2-99.9%). Our findings show good performance of the novel culture systems for the detection of uropathogens and ESBL-producing organisms. Both systems have several advantages over conventional media and have the potential to expand and decentralize laboratory testing.

The association between antimicrobial resistance and HIV infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVES: People living with HIV (PLWH) are at increased risk of infections with resistant organisms due to more frequent healthcare utilization. Our objective was to investigate the association between HIV and antimicrobial resistance (AMR). METHODS: We searched MEDLINE, EMBASE, Web of Science, LILACS and African Journals Online. Studies were eligible if they reported on AMR for colonization or infection with bacterial pathogens (excluding mycobacteria and bacteria causing sexually transmitted infections) and were stratified by HIV status, species and antimicrobials tested. Pooled odds ratios were used to evaluate the association between HIV and resistance. RESULTS: In total, 92 studies published between 1995 and 2020 were identified. The studies included the following organisms: Staphylococcusaureus (n = 47), Streptococcus pneumoniae (n = 28), Escherichia coli (n = 6) and other Gram-negative bacteria. PLWH had a 2.12 (95%CI 1.36-3.30) higher odds for colonization and 1.90 (95%CI 1.45-2.48) higher odds for infection with methicillin-resistant S. aureus, a 2.28 (95%CI 1.75-2.97) higher odds of infection with S. pneumoniae with decreased penicillin susceptibility, and a 1.59 (95%CI 0.83-3.05) higher odds of resistance to third-generation cephalosporins in E. coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae. CONCLUSION: This review shows an increased risk of AMR in PLWH across a range of bacterial pathogens and multiple drug classes. The lack of laboratory capacity for identifying AMR, and limited access to alternative treatment options in countries with the highest burden of HIV, highlight the need for more research on AMR in PLWH. Overall, the quality of studies was moderate or low, which may impact the findings of this review.