Prevalence and risk of psychiatric disorders in young people: prospective cohort study exploring the role of childhood trauma (the HUNT study).

BACKGROUND: Better knowledge about childhood trauma as a risk factor for psychiatric disorders in young people could help strengthen the timeliness and effectiveness of prevention and treatment efforts. AIMS: To estimate the prevalence and risk of psychiatric disorders in young people following exposure to childhood trauma, including interpersonal violence. METHOD: This prospective cohort study followed 8199 adolescents (age range 12-20 years) over 13-15 years, into young adulthood (age range 25-35 years). Data about childhood trauma exposure from adolescents participating in the Trøndelag Health Study (HUNT, 2006-2008) were linked to data about subsequent development of psychiatric disorders from the Norwegian Patient Registry (2008-2021). RESULTS: One in four (24.3%) adolescents were diagnosed with a psychiatric disorder by young adulthood. Regression analyses showed consistent and significant relationships between childhood exposure to both interpersonal violence and other potentially traumatic events, and subsequent psychiatric disorders and psychiatric comorbidity. The highest estimates were observed for childhood exposure to two or more types of interpersonal violence (polyvictimisation), and development of psychotic disorders (odds ratio 3.41, 95% CI 1.93-5.72), stress and adjustment disorders (odds ratio 4.20, 95% CI 3.05-5.71), personality disorders (odds ratio 3.98, 95% CI 2.70-5.76), alcohol-related disorders (odds ratio 3.28, 95% CI 2.06-5.04) and drug-related disorders (odds ratio 4.67, 95% CI 2.87-7.33). CONCLUSIONS: These findings emphasise the importance of integrating knowledge about childhood trauma as a potent risk factor for psychopathology into the planning and implementation of services for children, adolescents and young adults.

Childhood trauma and treatment resistance in first-episode psychosis: Investigating the role of premorbid adjustment and duration of untreated psychosis.

BACKGROUND: Early identification of treatment non-response in first-episode psychosis (FEP) is essential to outcome. Despite indications that exposure to childhood trauma (CT) can have adverse effects on illness severity, its impact on treatment non-response and the interplay with other pre-treatment characteristics is sparsely investigated. We use a lack of clinical recovery as an early indicator of treatment resistance to investigate the relationship between CT and treatment resistance status at one-year follow-up and the potential mediation of this effect by other pre-treatment characteristics. METHODS: This prospective one-year follow-up study involved 141 participants recruited in their first year of treatment for a schizophrenia-spectrum disorder. We investigated clinical status, childhood trauma (CT), premorbid adjustment (PA), and duration of untreated psychosis (DUP) at baseline and clinical status at one-year follow-up. Ordinal regression analyses were conducted to investigate how PA and DUP affected the relationship between CT and one-year outcome in FEP. RESULTS: 45 % of the FEP sample reported moderate to severe CT, with significantly higher levels of CT in the early treatment resistant group compared to participants with full or partial early recovery. Ordinal regression analysis showed that CT was a significant predictor of being in a more severe outcome group (OR = 4.59). There was a partial mediation effect of PA and a full mediation effect of DUP on the effect of CT on outcome group membership. DISCUSSION: Our findings indicate that reducing treatment delays may mitigate the adverse effects of CT on clinical outcomes and support the inclusion of broad trauma assessment in FEP services.

Unraveling the Concept of Childhood Adversity in Psychosis Research: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: During the last decades, an abundance of studies has investigated childhood adversity in relation to psychosis. This systematic review critically examines the methodologies employed to investigate childhood adversity in psychosis over the past decade, including operational definitions, measurement tools and characteristics, and psychometric properties of instruments used in these studies. STUDY DESIGN: This systematic review followed the PRISMA guidelines (registration number CRD42022307096), and the search used the following electronic databases: PsychINFO, SCOPUS, Web of Science, African Index Medicus (AIM), LILACS, CINAHL, EMBASE, and MEDLINE. The search included variations and combinations of the terms targeting childhood adversity and psychosis. STUDY RESULTS: Out of 585 identified studies published between 2010 and 2023, 341 employed a validated instrument to investigate childhood adversity. Our findings show "childhood trauma" being the most frequently examined construct, followed by "child maltreatment" or "child abuse." The short version of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire was the dominant instrument. Physical abuse, emotional abuse, and sexual abuse were most frequently investigated, and indeed the field appears generally to focus on child abuse and neglect over other adversities. Significant psychometric heterogeneity was observed in the selection and summarization of instrument items, with only 59% of studies documenting original psychometric validation and 22% reporting reliability in their datasets. CONCLUSION: This review highlights substantial methodological heterogeneity in the field, pointing out biases in the research on childhood adversity and psychosis. These findings underline the need for standardized definitions and high-quality measurement tools to enhance the validity of future research in this area.

'My child could have died': counterfactual thoughts and psychological distress in parents of trauma survivors.

Background: After exposure to a potentially traumatic event, survivors may experience thoughts about 'what could have happened', referred to as counterfactual thoughts (CFTs). CFTs have been found to have a negative impact on survivors' mental health. This is the first study to investigate whether parents of trauma survivors experience CFTs and the association with psychological distress in this group.Objective: The main aim of the present study is to investigate CFTs in parents of trauma survivors and the relationship between the frequency and vividness of CFTs and psychological distress.Method: The participants (N = 310, 191 females) were parents of the youths targeted in the terror attack on Utøya island, Norway, in 2011. Frequency and vividness of CFTs, posttraumatic stress reactions (PTSR), and symptoms of anxiety and depression were measured 8.5-9 years post-terror.Results: The majority of the parents (74%) reported having experienced CFTs at some time point since the attack. For almost one-third of the parents, CFTs were still present more than eight years after the attack. Higher frequency and vividness of CFTs were uniquely associated with higher levels of PTSR, anxiety, and depression.Conclusion: The present findings suggest that frequent and vivid CFTs may contribute to mental health problems in parents of trauma survivors and should be addressed in therapy.

A quantitative study investigating the relationship between counterfactual thoughts and psychological distress, in parents of trauma survivors.The majority of the parents reported having experienced counterfactual thoughts at some time point since the attack. For almost one-third of the parents, counterfactual thouhgts were still present more than eight years after the attack. Higher frequency and vividness of counterfactual thoughts were uniquely associated with higher levels of psychological distress.The present findings suggest that frequent and vivid counterfactual thouhgts may contribute to mental health problems in parents of trauma survivors and should be addressed in therapy.

Tobacco smoking related to childhood trauma mediated by cognitive control and impulsiveness in severe mental disorders.

BACKGROUND: People with severe mental disorders (SMDs) show an increased prevalence of tobacco smoking compared to the general population. Tobacco smoking and other adult adverse health behaviors have been associated with traumatic experiences in childhood. In the present study we investigated the relationship between childhood trauma and tobacco smoking in people with SMDs, including the possible mediating role of cognitive- and personality characteristics, i.e. cognitive control, impulsiveness, affective lability and self-esteem. METHODS: Enrolled in the study were 871 participants with schizophrenia (SCZ, N = 484) and bipolar (BD, N = 387) spectrum disorders. We assessed tobacco smoking behavior (yes/no and amount), and history of childhood trauma with the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire. Data on cognitive control, impulsiveness, affective lability, and self-esteem were available in subsamples. We performed linear and logistic regressions, and conducted mediation analyses in PROCESS. All analyses were as standard adjusted for age, sex, and diagnostic group. RESULTS: Experience of one or more subtypes of childhood trauma was significantly associated with smoking tobacco in SMDs (p = 0.002). There were no significant associations between childhood trauma and amount of tobacco smoking. Cognitive control and impulsiveness were significant mediators between childhood trauma and tobacco smoking. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate the experience of childhood trauma as a predisposing factor for tobacco smoking in SMDs. Cognitive control and impulsiveness were suggested as mediating mechanisms, indicating the importance of considering inhibition related self-regulatory aspects in efforts to improve health behavior in individuals with SMDs and childhood trauma.

Childhood trauma, antipsychotic medication, and symptom remission in first-episode psychosis.

BACKGROUND: To what extent psychotic symptoms in first-episode psychosis (FEP) with a history of childhood interpersonal trauma (CIT) are less responsive to antipsychotic medication is not known. In this longitudinal study, we compare symptom trajectories and remission over the first 2 years of treatment in FEP with and without CIT and examine if differences are linked to the use of antipsychotics. METHODS: FEP (N = 191) were recruited from in- and outpatient services 1997-2000, and assessed at baseline, 3 months, 1 and 2 years. Inclusion criteria were 15-65 years, actively psychotic with a DSM-IV diagnosis of psychotic disorder and no previous adequate treatment for psychosis. Antipsychotic medication is reported as defined daily dosage (DDD). CIT (<18) was assessed with the Brief Betrayal Trauma Survey, and symptomatic remission based on scores from the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale. RESULTS: CIT (n = 63, 33%) was not associated with symptomatic remission at 2 years follow-up (71% in remission, 14% in relapse), or time to first remission (CIT 12/ no-CIT 9 weeks, p = 0.51). Those with CIT had significantly more severe positive, depressive, and excited symptoms. FEP with physical (N = 39, 20%) or emotional abuse (N = 22, 14, 7%) had higher DDD at 1 year (p < 0.05). Mean DDD did not excerpt a significant between-group effect on symptom trajectories of positive symptoms. CONCLUSION: Results indicate that antipsychotic medication is equally beneficial in the achievement of symptomatic remission in FEP after 2 years independent of CIT. Still, FEP patients with CIT had more severe positive, depressive, and excited symptoms throughout.

Early identification of treatment non-response in first-episode psychosis.

BACKGROUND: Approximately one-third of patients with psychotic disorders does not respond to standard antipsychotic treatments. Consensus criteria for treatment resistance (TR) may aid the identification of non-response and subsequent tailoring of treatments. Since consensus criteria require stability of clinical status, they are challenging to apply in first-episode psychosis (FEP). This study aims to investigate (a) if an adaptation of consensus criteria can be used to identify FEP patients with early signs of TR (no early clinical recovery-no-ECR) after 1 year in treatment and (b) to what extent differences in antipsychotic treatments differentiate between outcome groups. METHODS: Participants with FEP DSM-IV schizophrenia spectrum disorders were recruited during their first treatment. A total of 207 participated in the 1-year follow-up. Remission and recovery definitions were based on adaptations of the "Remission in Schizophrenia Working Group" criteria and TR on adaptations of the "Treatment Response and Resistance in Psychosis" (TRRIP) working group criteria. RESULTS: 97 participants (47%) could be classified as no-ECR, 61 (30%) as ECR, and 49 (23%) as with partial ECR (P-ECR). Statistically significant baseline predictors of no-ECR matched previously identified predictors of long-term TR. Only 35 no-ECR participants had two adequate treatment trials and met the full TRRIP criteria. 21 no-ECR participants were using the same medication over the follow-up year despite the lack of significant effects. CONCLUSION: The difference in the percentage of FEP participants classified as no-ECR versus TR indicates that we may underestimate the prevalence of early TR when using consensus criteria.

An epigenetic association analysis of childhood trauma in psychosis reveals possible overlap with methylation changes associated with PTSD.

Patients with a severe mental disorder report significantly higher levels of childhood trauma (CT) than healthy individuals. Studies have suggested that CT may affect brain plasticity through epigenetic mechanisms and contribute to developing various psychiatric disorders. We performed a blood-based epigenome-wide association study using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire-short form in 602 patients with a current severe mental illness, investigating DNA methylation association separately for five trauma subtypes and the total trauma score. The median trauma score was set as the predefined cutoff for determining whether the trauma was present or not. Additionally, we compared our genome-wide results with methylation probes annotated to candidate genes previously associated with CT. Of the patients, 83.2% reported CT above the cutoff in one or more trauma subtypes, and emotional neglect was the trauma subtype most frequently reported. We identified one significant differently methylated position associated with the gene TANGO6 for physical neglect. Seventeen differentially methylated regions (DMRs) were associated with different trauma categories. Several of these DMRs were annotated to genes previously associated with neuropsychiatric disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder and cognitive impairments. Our results support a biomolecular association between CT and severe mental disorders. Genes that were previously identified as differentially methylated in CT-exposed subjects with and without psychosis did not show methylation differences in our analysis. We discuss this inconsistency, the relevance of our findings, and the limitations of our study.

The Influence of Mental Health Literacy, Migration, and Education on the Duration of Untreated Psychosis.

Background: Duration of untreated psychosis (DUP) is associated with outcome in psychotic disorders and influenced by contextual factors such as immigration. Here we aimed to investigate the effect of mental health literacy (MHL) on duration of untreated psychosis considering the influence of migration and education. Methods: A total of 269 participants who received their first adequate medical treatment for a psychotic disorder within the current or past year were included to the Thematically Organized Psychosis study in Oslo, Norway. Sociodemographic and clinical information was collected through systematic interviews. MHL was measured as "recognition of psychotic symptoms" and assessed by "The Attitudes and Beliefs about Mental Health Problems" schizophrenia version. Influence of education, migration and MHL on DUP was analyzed with hierarchical block-wise multiple regression analysis. Results: Recognition of psychotic symptoms explained a small but unique variance (2.3%) in DUP after the effects of other important predictors were controlled for. Longer DUP was also associated with less education, lower premorbid social, and academic functioning, a diagnosis within schizophrenia spectrum disorder, and earlier age of onset. The model explained 26% of variance in DUP. Migration after the age of six and length of education were associated with MHL but did not have a significant interaction with MHL in predicting DUP. Conclusions: MHL, measured as recognition of psychotic symptoms, has a small but significant independent effect on DUP. The effect of MHL was larger than years of education and migration history, and did not interact with either, in predicting DUP. This suggests that MHL is an independent factor in prevention strategies for early psychosis.