Automated quantitative assessment of bone contusions and overlying articular cartilage following anterior cruciate ligament injury.

Quantitative methods to characterize bone contusions and associated cartilage injury remain limited. We combined standardized voxelwise normalization and 3D mapping to automate bone contusion segmentation post-anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury and evaluate anomalies in articular cartilage overlying bone contusions. Forty-five patients (54% female, 26.4 ± 11.8 days post-injury) with an ACL tear underwent 3T magnetic resonance imaging of their involved and uninvolved knees. A novel method for voxelwise normalization and 3D anatomical mapping was used to automate segmentation, labeling, and localization of bone contusions in the involved knee. The same mapping system was used to identify the associated articular cartilage overlying bone lesions. Mean regional T1ρ was extracted from articular cartilage regions in both the involved and uninvolved knees for quantitative paired analysis against ipsilateral cartilage within the same compartment outside of the localized bone contusion. At least one bone contusion lesion was detected in the involved knee within the femur and/or tibia following ACL injury in 42 participants. Elevated T1ρ (p = 0.033) signal were documented within the articular cartilage overlying the bone contusions resulting from ACL injury. In contrast, the same cartilaginous regions deprojected onto the uninvolved knees showed no ipsilateral differences (p = 0.795). Automated bone contusion segmentation using standardized voxelwise normalization and 3D mapping deprojection identified altered cartilage overlying bone contusions in the setting of knee ACL injury.

Considering the cellular landscape in marrow stimulation techniques for cartilage repair.

BACKGROUND: Marrow stimulation is a common reparative approach to treat injuries to cartilage and other soft tissues (e.g., rotator cuff). It involves the recruitment of bone marrow elements and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) into the defect, theoretically initiating a regenerative process. However, the resulting repair tissue is often weak and susceptible to deterioration with time. The populations of cells at the marrow stimulation site (beyond MSCs), and their contribution to inflammation, vascularity, and fibrosis, may play a role in quality of the repair tissue. SUMMARY: In this review, we accomplish three goals: 1) systematically review clinical trials on the augmentation of marrow stimulation and evaluate their assumptions on the biological elements recruited; 2) detail the cellular populations in bone marrow and their impact on healing; and 3) highlight emerging technologies and approaches that could better guide these specific cell populations towards enhanced cartilage or soft tissue formation. KEY MESSAGES: We found that most clinical trials do not account for cell heterogeneity, nor do they specify the regenerative element recruited, and those that do typically utilize descriptions such as "clots", "elements", and "blood". Furthermore, our review of bone marrow cell populations demonstrates a dramatically heterogenous cell population, including hematopoietic cells, immune cells, fibroblasts, macrophages, and only a small population of MSCs. Finally, the field has developed numerous innovative techniques to enhance the chondrogenic potential (and reduce the anti-regenerative impacts) of these various cell types. We hope this review will guide approaches that account for cellular heterogeneity and improve marrow stimulation techniques to treat chondral defects.

Revealing Early Spatial Patterns of Cellular Responsivity in Fiber-Reinforced Microenvironments.

Fiber-reinforcement approaches have been used to replace aligned tissues with engineered constructs after injury or surgical resection, strengthening soft biomaterial scaffolds and replicating anisotropic, load-bearing properties. However, most studies focus on the macroscale aspects of these scaffolds, rarely considering the cell-biomaterial interactions that govern remodeling and extracellular matrix organization toward aligned neo-tissues. As initial cell-biomaterial responses within fiber-reinforced microenvironments likely influence the long-term efficacy of repair and regeneration strategies, here we elucidate the roles of spatial orientation, substrate stiffness, and matrix remodeling on early cell-fiber interactions. Bovine mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) were cultured in soft fibrin gels reinforced with a stiff 100 µm polyglycolide-co-caprolactone fiber. Gel stiffness and remodeling capacity were modulated by fibrinogen concentration and aprotinin treatment, respectively. MSCs were imaged at 3 days and evaluated for morphology, mechanoresponsiveness (nuclear Yes-associated protein [YAP] localization), and spatial features including distance and angle deviation from fiber. Within these constructs, morphological conformity decreased as a function of distance from fiber. However, these correlations were weak (R2 = 0.01043 for conformity and R2 = 0.05542 for nuclear YAP localization), illustrating cellular heterogeneity within fiber-enforced microenvironments. To better assess cell-fiber interactions, we applied machine-learning strategies to our heterogeneous dataset of cell-shape and mechanoresponsive parameters. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to project 23 input parameters (not including distance) onto 5 principal components (PCs), followed by agglomerative hierarchical clustering to classify cells into 3 groups. These clusters exhibited distinct levels of morpho-mechanoresponse (combination of morphological conformity and YAP signaling) and were classified as high response (HR), medium response (MR), and low response (LR) clusters. Cluster distribution varied spatially, with most cells (61%) closest to the fiber (0-75 µm) belonging to the HR cluster, and most cells (55%) furthest from the fiber (225-300 µm) belonging to the LR cluster. Modulation of gel stiffness and fibrin remodeling showed differential effects for HR cells, with stiffness influencing the level of mechanoresponse and remodeling capacity influencing the location of responding cells. Together, these novel findings demonstrate early trends in cellular patterning of the fiber-reinforced microenvironment, showing how spatial orientation, substrate biophysical properties, and matrix remodeling may guide the amplitude and localization of cellular mechanoresponses. These trends may guide approaches to optimize the design of microscale scaffold architecture and substrate properties for enhancing organized tissue assembly at the macroscale.

Improved Cartilage Protection with Low Molecular Weight Hyaluronic Acid Hydrogel.

Traumatic joint injuries are common, leading to progressive tissue degeneration and the development of osteoarthritis. The post-traumatic joint experiences a pro-inflammatory milieu, initiating a subtle but deteriorative process in cartilage tissue. To prevent or even reverse this process, our group previously developed a tissue-penetrating methacrylated hyaluronic acid (MeHA) hydrogel system, crosslinked within cartilage to restore and/or protect the tissue. In the current study, we further optimized this approach by investigating the impact of biomaterial molecular weight (MW; 20, 75, 100 kDa) on its integration within and reinforcement of cartilage, as well as its ability to protect tissue degradation in a catabolic state. Indeed, the low MW MeHA integrated and reinforced cartilage tissue better than the high MW counterparts. Furthermore, in a 2 week IL-1ß explant culture model, the 20 kDa MeHA demonstrated the most protection from biphasic mechanical loss, best retention of proteoglycans (Safranin O staining), and least aggrecan breakdown (NITEGE). Thus, the lower MW MeHA gels integrated better into the tissue and provided the greatest protection of the cartilage matrix. Future work will test this formulation in a preclinical model, with the goal of translating this therapeutic approach for cartilage preservation.

Exogenous All-Trans Retinoic Acid Induces Myopia and Alters Scleral Biomechanics in Mice.

Purpose: Ocular all-trans retinoic acid (atRA) levels are influenced by visual cues, and exogenous atRA has been shown to increase eye size in chickens and guinea pigs. However, it is not clear whether atRA induces myopic axial elongation via scleral changes. Here, we test the hypothesis that exogenous atRA will induce myopia and alter scleral biomechanics in the mouse. Methods: Male C57BL/6J mice were trained to voluntarily ingest atRA + vehicle (1% atRA in sugar, 25 mg/kg) (RA: n = 16 animals) or vehicle only (Ctrl: n = 14 animals). Refractive error (RE) and ocular biometry were measured at baseline and after 1 and 2 weeks of daily atRA treatment. Eyes were used in ex vivo assays to measure scleral biomechanics (unconfined compression: n = 18), total scleral sulfated glycosaminoglycan (sGAG) content (dimethylmethylene blue: n = 23), and specific sGAGs (immunohistochemistry: n = 18). Results: Exogenous atRA caused myopic RE and larger vitreous chamber depth (VCD) to develop by 1 week (RE: -3.7 ± 2.2 diopters [D], P < 0.001; VCD: +20.7 ± 15.1 µm, P < 0.001), becoming more severe by 2 weeks (RE: -5.7 ± 2.2 D, P < 0.001; VCD: +32.3 ± 25.8 µm, P < 0.001). The anterior eye biometry was unaffected. While scleral sGAG content was not measurably affected, scleral biomechanics were significantly altered (tensile stiffness: -30% ± 19.5%, P < 0.001; permeability: +60% ± 95.3%, P < 0.001). Conclusions: In mice, atRA treatment results in an axial myopia phenotype. Eyes developed myopic RE and larger VCD without the anterior eye being affected. The decrease in stiffness and increase in permeability of the sclera are consistent with the form-deprivation myopia phenotype.

Transient inhibition of meniscus cell migration following acute inflammatory challenge.

Meniscus tears represent a common orthopedic injury that often requires surgery to restore pain-free function. The need for surgical intervention is due, in part, to the inflammatory and catabolic environment that inhibits meniscus healing after injury. In other organ systems, healing is dependent on the migration of cells to the site of injury; however, in the meniscus, it is currently unknown how the microenvironment dictates cell migration in the postinjury inflamed setting. Here, we investigated how inflammatory cytokines alter meniscal fibrochondrocyte (MFC) migration and sensation of microenvironmental stiffness. We further tested whether an FDA approved interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra; Anakinra) could rescue migratory deficits caused by inflammatory challenge. When cultured in the presence of inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α [TNF-α] or interleukin-1ß [IL-1ß]) for 1 day, MFC migration was inhibited for 3 days before returning to control levels at Day 7. This migratory deficit was clear in three-dimensional as well, where fewer MFCs exposed to inflammatory cytokines migrated from a living meniscal explant compared with control. Notably, addition of IL-1Ra to MFCs previously exposed to IL-1ß restored migration to baseline levels. This study demonstrates that joint inflammation can have negative impacts on meniscus cell migration and mechanosensation, affecting their potential for repair, and that resolution of this inflammation with concurrent anti-inflammatories can reverse these deficits. Future work will apply these findings to mitigate the negative consequences of joint inflammation and promote repair in a clinically relevant meniscus injury model.

Activation of basal forebrain-to-lateral habenula circuitry drives reflexive aversion and suppresses feeding behavior.

Environmental cues and internal states such as mood, reward, or aversion directly influence feeding behaviors beyond homeostatic necessity. The hypothalamus has been extensively investigated for its role in homeostatic feeding. However, many of the neural circuits that drive more complex, non-homeostatic feeding that integrate valence and sensory cues (such as taste and smell) remain unknown. Here, we describe a basal forebrain (BF)-to-lateral habenula (LHb) circuit that directly modulates non-homeostatic feeding behavior. Using viral-mediated circuit mapping, we identified a population of glutamatergic neurons within the BF that project to the LHb, which responds to diverse sensory cues, including aversive and food-related odors. Optogenetic activation of BF-to-LHb circuitry drives robust, reflexive-like aversion. Furthermore, activation of this circuitry suppresses the drive to eat in a fasted state. Together, these data reveal a role of basal forebrain glutamatergic neurons in modulating LHb-associated aversion and feeding behaviors by sensing environmental cues.

Altered Structure and Function of Murine Sclera in Form-Deprivation Myopia.

Purpose: The sclera is believed to biomechanically influence eye size, facilitating the excessive axial elongation that occurs during myopigenesis. Here, we test the hypothesis that the sclera will be remodeled and exhibit altered biomechanics in the mouse model of form-deprivation (FD) myopia, accompanied by altered retinoid concentrations, a potential signaling molecule involved in the process. Methods: Male C57 Bl/6J mice were subjected to unilateral FD (n = 44 eyes), leaving the contralateral eye untreated (contra; n = 44). Refractive error and ocular biometry were measured in vivo prior to and after 1 or 3 weeks of FD. Ex vivo measurements were made of scleral biomechanical properties (unconfined compression: n = 24), scleral sulfated glycosaminoglycan (sGAG) content (dimethylmethylene blue: n = 18, and immunohistochemistry: n = 22), and ocular all-trans retinoic acid (atRA) concentrations (retina and RPE + choroid + sclera, n = 24). Age-matched naïve controls were included for some outcomes (n = 32 eyes). Results: Significant myopia developed after 1 (-2.4 ± 1.1 diopters [D], P < 0.001) and 3 weeks of FD (-4.1 ± 0.7 D, P = 0.025; mean ± standard deviation). Scleral tensile stiffness and permeability were significantly altered during myopigenesis (stiffness = -31.4 ± 12.7%, P < 0.001, and permeability = 224.4 ± 205.5%, P < 0.001). Total scleral sGAG content was not measurably altered; however, immunohistochemistry indicated a sustained decrease in chondroitin-4-sulfate and a slower decline in dermatan sulfate. The atRA increased in the retinas of eyes form-deprived for 1 week. Conclusions: We report that biomechanics and GAG content of the mouse sclera are altered during myopigenesis. All scleral outcomes generally follow the trends found in other species and support a retina-to-sclera signaling cascade underlying mouse myopigenesis.

Plant Tissue Parenchyma and Vascular Bundles Selectively Regulate Stem Cell Mechanosensing and Differentiation.

Introduction: Plant tissues are plentiful, diverse, and due to convergent evolution are structurally similar to many animal tissues. Decellularized plant tissues feature microtopographies that resemble cancellous bone (porous parenchyma) and skeletal muscle (fibrous vascular bundles). However, the use of plant tissues as an inexpensive and abundant biomaterial for controlling stem cell behavior has not been widely explored. Methods: Celery plant tissues were cut cross-sectionally (porous parenchyma) or longitudinally (fibrous vascular bundles) and decellularized. Human mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) were then cultured atop plant tissues and confocal imaging of single cells was used to evaluate the early effects of microtopography on MSC adhesion, morphology, cytoskeletal alignment, Yes-associated protein (YAP) signaling, and downstream lineage commitment to osteogenic or myogenic phenotypes. Results: Microtopography was conserved post plant tissue decellularization and MSCs attached and proliferated on plant tissues. MSCs cultured on porous parenchyma spread isotropically along the periphery of plant tissue pores. In contrast, MSCs cultured on vascular bundles spread anisotropically and aligned in the direction of fibrous vascular bundles. Differences in microtopography also influenced MSC nuclear YAP localization and actin anisotropy, with higher values observed on fibrous tissues. When exposed to osteogenic or myogenic culture medium, MSCs on porous parenchyma had a higher percentage of cells stain positive for bone biomarker alkaline phosphatase, whereas myoblast determination protein 1 (MyoD) was significantly upregulated for MSCs on fibrous vascular bundles. Conclusions: Together, these results show that plant tissues are an abundant biomaterial with defined microarchitecture that can reproducibly regulate MSC morphology, mechanosensing, and differentiation. Supplementary Information: The online version of this article contains supplementary material available 10.1007/s12195-022-00737-9.

Stable human cartilage progenitor cell line stimulates healing of meniscal tears and attenuates post-traumatic osteoarthritis.

Meniscal tearing in the knee increases the risk of post-traumatic osteoarthritis (OA) in patients. The therapeutic application of tissue-specific mesenchymal progenitor cells is currently being investigated as an emerging biologic strategy to help improve healing of musculoskeletal tissues like meniscal fibrocartilage and articular hyaline cartilage. However, many of these approaches involve isolating cells from healthy tissues, and the low yield of rare progenitor populations (< 1% of total cells residing in tissues) can make finding a readily available cell source for therapeutic use a significant logistical challenge. In the present study, we investigated the therapeutic efficacy of using expanded cartilage-derived and bone marrow-derived progenitor cell lines, which were stabilized using retroviral SV40, for repair of meniscus injury in a rodent model. Our findings indicate that these cell lines express the same cell surface marker phenotype of primary cells (CD54+, CD90+, CD105+, CD166+), and that they exhibit improved proliferative capacity that is suitable for extensive expansion. Skeletally mature male athymic rats treated with 3.2 million cartilage-derived progenitor cell line exhibited approximately 79% greater meniscal tear reintegration/healing, compared to injured animals that left untreated, and 76% greater compared to animals treated with the same number of marrow-derived stromal cells. Histological analysis of articular surfaces also showed that cartilage-derived progenitor cell line treated animals exhibited reduced post-traumatic OA associated articular cartilage degeneration. Stable cell line treatment did not cause tumor formation or off-target engraftment in animals. Taken together, we present a proof-of-concept study demonstrating, for the first time, that intra-articular injection of a stable human cartilage-derived progenitor cell line stimulates meniscus tear healing and provide chondroprotection in an animal model. These outcomes suggest that the use of stable cell lines may help overcome cell source limitations for cell-based medicine.

Cartilage-penetrating hyaluronic acid hydrogel preserves tissue content and reduces chondrocyte catabolism.

Articular cartilage injuries have a limited healing capacity and, due to inflammatory and catabolic activities, often experience progressive degeneration towards osteoarthritis. Current repair techniques generally provide short-term symptomatic relief; however, the regeneration of hyaline cartilage remains elusive, leaving both the repair tissue and surrounding healthy tissue susceptible to long-term wear. Therefore, methods to preserve cartilage following injury, especially from matrix loss and catabolism, are needed to delay, or even prevent, the deteriorative process. The goal of this study was to develop and evaluate a cartilage-penetrating hyaluronic-acid (HA) hydrogel to improve damaged cartilage biomechanics and prevent tissue degeneration. At time zero, the HA-based hydrogel provided a 46.5% increase in compressive modulus and a decrease in permeability after simulated degeneration of explants (collagenase application). Next, in a degenerative culture model (interleukin-1ß [IL-1ß] for 2 weeks), hydrogel application prior to or midway through the culture mitigated detrimental changes to compressive modulus and permeability observed in non-treated explants. Furthermore, localized loss of proteoglycan was observed in degenerative culture conditions alone (non-treated), but hydrogel administration significantly improved the retention of matrix elements. Finally, NITEGE staining and gene expression analysis showed the ability of the HA gel to decrease chondrocyte catabolic activity. These results highlight the importance of reinforcing damaged cartilage with a biomaterial system to both preserve tissue content and reduce catabolism associated with injury and inflammation.

In Situ Assessment of Porcine Osteochondral Repair Tissue in the Visible-Near Infrared Spectral Region.

Standard assessment of cartilage repair progression by visual arthroscopy can be subjective and may result in suboptimal evaluation. Visible-near infrared (Vis-NIR) fiber optic spectroscopy of joint tissues, including articular cartilage and subchondral bone, provides an objective approach for quantitative assessment of tissue composition. Here, we applied this technique in the 350-2,500 nm spectral region to identify spectral markers of osteochondral tissue during repair with the overarching goal of developing a new approach to monitor repair of cartilage defects in vivo. Full thickness chondral defects were created in Yucatan minipigs using a 5-mm biopsy punch, and microfracture (MFx) was performed as a standard technique to facilitate repair. Tissues were evaluated at 1 month (in adult pigs) and 3 months (in juvenile pigs) post-surgery by spectroscopy and histology. After euthanasia, Vis-NIR spectra were collected in situ from the defect region. Additional spectroscopy experiments were carried out in vitro to aid in spectral interpretation. Osteochondral tissues were dissected from the joint and evaluated using the conventional International Cartilage Repair Society (ICRS) II histological scoring system, which showed lower scores for the 1-month than the 3-month repair tissues. In the visible spectral region, hemoglobin absorbances at 540 and 570 nm were significantly higher in spectra from 1-month repair tissue than 3-month repair tissue, indicating a reduction of blood in the more mature repair tissue. In the NIR region, we observed qualitative differences between the two groups in spectra taken from the defect, but differences did not reach significance. Furthermore, spectral data also indicated that the hydrated environment of the joint tissue may interfere with evaluation of tissue water absorbances in the NIR region. Together, these data provide support for further investigation of the visible spectral region for assessment of longitudinal repair of cartilage defects, which would enable assessment during routine arthroscopy, particularly in a hydrated environment.

Six-Month Outcomes of Clinically Relevant Meniscal Injury in a Large-Animal Model.

BACKGROUND: The corrective procedures for meniscal injury are dependent on tear type, severity, and location. Vertical longitudinal tears are common in young and active individuals, but their natural progression and impact on osteoarthritis (OA) development are not known. Root tears are challenging and they often indicate poor outcomes, although the timing and mechanisms of initiation of joint dysfunction are poorly understood, particularly in large-animal and human models. PURPOSE/HYPOTHESIS: In this study, vertical longitudinal and root tears were made in a large-animal model to determine the progression of joint-wide dysfunction. We hypothesized that OA onset and progression would depend on the extent of injury-based load disruption in the tissue, such that root tears would cause earlier and more severe changes to the joint. STUDY DESIGN: Controlled laboratory study. METHODS: Sham surgeries and procedures to create either vertical longitudinal or root tears were performed in juvenile Yucatan mini pigs through randomized and bilateral arthroscopic procedures. Animals were sacrificed at 1, 3, or 6 months after injury and assessed at the joint and tissue level for evidence of OA. Functional measures of joint load transfer, cartilage indentation mechanics, and meniscal tensile properties were performed, as well as histological evaluation of the cartilage, meniscus, and synovium. RESULTS: Outcomes suggested a progressive and sustained degeneration of the knee joint and meniscus after root tear, as evidenced by histological analysis of the cartilage and meniscus. This occurred in spite of spontaneous reattachment of the root, suggesting that this reattachment did not fully restore the function of the native attachment. In contrast, the vertical longitudinal tear did not cause significant changes to the joint, with only mild differences compared with sham surgery at the 6-month time point. CONCLUSION: Given that the root tear, which severs circumferential connectivity and load transfer, caused more intense OA compared with the circumferentially stable vertical longitudinal tear, our findings suggest that without timely and mechanically competent fixation, root tears may cause irreversible joint damage. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: More generally, this new model can serve as a test bed for experimental surgical, scaffold-based, and small molecule-driven interventions after injury to prevent OA progression.

Meniscal repair: The current state and recent advances in augmentation.

Meniscal injuries represent one of the most common orthopedic injuries. The most frequent treatment is partial resection of the meniscus, or meniscectomy, which can affect joint mechanics and health. For this reason, the field has shifted gradually towards suture repair, with the intent of preservation of the tissue. "Save the Meniscus" is now a prolific theme in the field; however, meniscal repair can be challenging and ineffective in many scenarios. The objectives of this review are to present the current state of surgical management of meniscal injuries and to explore current approaches being developed to enhance meniscal repair. Through a systematic literature review, we identified meniscal tear classifications and prevalence, approaches being used to improve meniscal repair, and biological- and material-based systems being developed to promote meniscal healing. We found that biologic augmentation typically aims to improve cellular incorporation to the wound site, vascularization in the inner zones, matrix deposition, and inflammatory relief. Furthermore, materials can be used, both with and without contained biologics, to further support matrix deposition and tear integration, and novel tissue adhesives may provide the mechanical integrity that the meniscus requires. Altogether, evaluation of these approaches in relevant in vitro and in vivo models provides new insights into the mechanisms needed to salvage meniscal tissue, and along with regulatory considerations, may justify translation to the clinic. With the need to restore long-term function to injured menisci, biologists, engineers, and clinicians are developing novel approaches to enhance the future of robust and consistent meniscal reparative techniques.

Light-regulated voltage-gated potassium channels for acute interrogation of channel function in neurons and behavior.

Voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channels regulate the membrane potential and conductance of excitable cells to control the firing rate and waveform of action potentials. Even though Kv channels have been intensely studied for over 70 year, surprisingly little is known about how specific channels expressed in various neurons and their functional properties impact neuronal network activity and behavior in vivo. Although many in vivo genetic manipulations of ion channels have been tried, interpretation of these results is complicated by powerful homeostatic plasticity mechanisms that act to maintain function following perturbations in excitability. To better understand how Kv channels shape network function and behavior, we have developed a novel optogenetic technology to acutely regulate Kv channel expression with light by fusing the light-sensitive LOV domain of Vaucheria frigida Aureochrome 1 to the N-terminus of the Kv1 subunit protein to make an Opto-Kv1 channel. Recording of Opto-Kv1 channels expressed in Xenopus oocytes, mammalian cells, and neurons show that blue light strongly induces the current expression of Opto-Kv1 channels in all systems tested. We also find that an Opto-Kv1 construct containing a dominant-negative pore mutation (Opto-Kv1(V400D)) can be used to down-regulate Kv1 currents in a blue light-dependent manner. Finally, to determine whether Opto-Kv1 channels can elicit light-dependent behavioral effect in vivo, we targeted Opto-Kv1 (V400D) expression to Kv1.3-expressing mitral cells of the olfactory bulb in mice. Exposure of the bulb to blue light for 2-3 hours produced a significant increase in sensitivity to novel odors after initial habituation to a similar odor, comparable to behavioral changes seen in Kv1.3 knockout animals. In summary, we have developed novel photoactivatable Kv channels that provide new ways to interrogate neural circuits in vivo and to examine the roles of normal and disease-causing mutant Kv channels in brain function and behavior.

Nanofibrous hyaluronic acid scaffolds delivering TGF-ß3 and SDF-1α for articular cartilage repair in a large animal model.

Focal cartilage injuries have poor intrinsic healing potential and often progress to osteoarthritis, a costly disease affecting almost a third of adults in the United States. To treat these patients, cartilage repair therapies often use cell-seeded scaffolds, which are limited by donor site morbidity, high costs, and poor efficacy. To address these limitations, we developed an electrospun cell-free fibrous hyaluronic acid (HA) scaffold that delivers factors specifically designed to enhance cartilage repair: Stromal Cell-Derived Factor-1α (SDF-1α; SDF) to increase the recruitment and infiltration of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and Transforming Growth Factor-ß3 (TGF-ß3; TGF) to enhance cartilage tissue formation. Scaffolds were characterized in vitro and then deployed in a large animal model of full-thickness cartilage defect repair. The bioactivity of both factors was verified in vitro, with both SDF and TGF increasing cell migration, and TGF increasing matrix formation by MSCs. In vivo, however, scaffolds releasing SDF resulted in an inferior cartilage healing response (lower mechanics, lower ICRS II histology score) compared to scaffolds releasing TGF alone. These results highlight the importance of translation into large animal models to appropriately screen scaffolds and therapies, and will guide investigators towards alternative growth factor combinations. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: This study addresses an area of orthopaedic medicine in which treatment options are limited and new biomaterials stand to improve patient outcomes. Those suffering from articular cartilage injuries are often destined to have early onset osteoarthritis. We have created a cell-free nanofibrous hyaluronic acid (HA) scaffold that delivers factors specifically designed to enhance cartilage repair: Stromal Cell-Derived Factor-1α (SDF-1α; SDF) to increase the recruitment and infiltration of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and Transforming Growth Factor-ß3 (TGF-ß3; TGF) to enhance cartilage tissue formation. To our knowledge, this study is the first to evaluate such a bioactive scaffold in a large animal model and demonstrates the capacity for dual growth factor release.