Theoretical Study on the Biosynthesis of the Mandapamates: Mechanistic Insights Using Density Functional Theory.

Density functional theory (B3LYP-D3(BJ) and ωB97XD) calculations have been used to assess the stereochemical outcomes of the proposed transannular [4 + 2] cycloaddition pathway for the biosynthesis of mandapamate and isomandapamate from macrocyclic intermediates. Calculations reveal that the topological shift between macrocyclic conformers is vital in controlling the stereoselectivity of the downstream steps toward the isomeric mandapamates. A stepwise 4 + 2 type process is energetically favored over a concerted [4 + 2] pathway at room temperature, and is consistent with the stereochemistries found in the natural products.

The Impact of Macrocycle Conformation on the Taxadiene-Forming Carbocation Cascade: Insight Gained from Sobralene, a Recently Discovered Verticillene Isomer.

DFT calculations on the carbocation intermediates that connect the biosynthetic pathways leading to the sand fly pheromone sobralene and taxadiene have been made. Establishment of the conformation of the macrocyclic carbocation intermediate required to produce the (Z)-C8,C9 alkene bond in sobralene has identified new conformations of the verticillyl carbocation intermediates on the taxadiene biosynthetic pathway. These "sobralene-like" carbocation conformations provide an exothermic pathway to taxadiene and are validated by comparison to closely related structures (X-ray and NMR).

The verticillenes. Pivotal intermediates in the biosynthesis of the taxanes and the phomactins.

Covering: up to May 2018The verticillene family of 6,12-membered ring-fused diterpenes are found in plants, liverworts, corals and insects. Carbocations derived from verticillene hydrocarbons are central intermediates in the biosynthesis of the taxane and the phomactin families of polycyclic natural products. This perspective delineates these unique biosynthetic interrelationships, which are reinforced by recent biomimetic synthesis investigations, alongside quantum chemical calculations and targeted engineering studies of the taxadiene synthase (TXS) cascade.

Sobralene, a new sex-aggregation pheromone and likely shunt metabolite of the taxadiene synthase cascade, produced by a member of the sand fly Lutzomyia longipalpis species complex.

A new sex-aggregation pheromone, sobralene, produced by the sand fly Lutzomyia longipalpis from Sobral (Ceará State, Brazil) is shown to have the novel 6,12-membered ring-fused diterpene structure 3. It is proposed that sobralene is a likely shunt metabolite of the taxadiene synthase-catalysed cyclisation of geranygeranyl diphosphate.

The versatility of furfuryl alcohols and furanoxonium ions in synthesis.

Substituted furfuryl alcohols are extraordinarily versatile starting materials in synthesis. They are precursors to furanoxonium ion intermediates which are implicated in the Piancatelli reaction (leading to 2-cyclopentenones) and in the synthesis of novel dihydrofuran-based exo enol ether/cyclic ketal natural products. They are also intermediates in a recently discovered (4+3) cycloaddition reaction with 1,3-dienes leading to furan ring-fused cycloheptenes. Here we provide a perspective on recent developments in these areas of synthesis, alongside recent applications of the Achmatowicz reaction and [5+2] cycloaddition reactions of the resulting oxidopyrylium ions.

Mapping the structural requirements of inducers and substrates for decarboxylation of weak acid preservatives by the food spoilage mould Aspergillus niger.

Moulds are able to cause spoilage in preserved foods through degradation of the preservatives using the Pad-decarboxylation system. This causes, for example, decarboxylation of the preservative sorbic acid to 1,3-pentadiene, a volatile compound with a kerosene-like odour. Neither the natural role of this system nor the range of potential substrates has yet been reported. The Pad-decarboxylation system, encoded by a gene cluster in germinating spores of the mould Aspergillus niger, involves activity by two decarboxylases, PadA1 and OhbA1, and a regulator, SdrA, acting pleiotropically on sorbic acid and cinnamic acid. The structural features of compounds important for the induction of Pad-decarboxylation at both transcriptional and functionality levels were investigated by rtPCR and GCMS. Sorbic and cinnamic acids served as transcriptional inducers but ferulic, coumaric and hexanoic acids did not. 2,3,4,5,6-Pentafluorocinnamic acid was a substrate for the enzyme but had no inducer function; it was used to distinguish induction and competence for decarboxylation in combination with the analogue chemicals. The structural requirements for the substrates of the Pad-decarboxylation system were probed using a variety of sorbic and cinnamic acid analogues. High decarboxylation activity, ~100% conversion of 1mM substrates, required a mono-carboxylic acid with an alkenyl double bond in the trans (E)-configuration at position C2, further unsaturation at C4, and an overall molecular length between 6.5Å and 9Å. Polar groups on the phenyl ring of cinnamic acid abolished activity (no conversion). Furthermore, several compounds were shown to block Pad-decarboxylation. These compounds, primarily aldehyde analogues of active substrates, may serve to reduce food spoilage by moulds such as A. niger. The possible ecological role of Pad-decarboxylation of spore self-inhibitors is unlikely and the most probable role for Pad-decarboxylation is to remove cinnamic acid-type inhibitors from plant material and allow uninhibited germination and growth of mould spores.

Perspectives on the structural and biosynthetic interrelationships between oxygenated furanocembranoids and their polycyclic congeners found in corals.

Macrocyclic and polycyclic 'cembranoid' diterpenes are one of the most widespread groups of natural products that are found in the marine milieu. The macrocyclic cembranoids are linked to each other by a network of oxygenation processes, which often climax with the formation of furano- and furanobutenolide-based macrocyclic cembranoids commonly found in gorgonian and soft corals. These macrocycles are then prone to oxidative rearrangements, photochemical ring contraction, and transannular cyclisations amongst others, leading to a plethora of novel and architecturally attractive marine metabolites. Although there is a dearth of knowledge about the enzymes that trigger some of the steps in their biosynthesis, speculations are rife. In this personal perspective we have examined many of the structural relationships within oxycembranoids and their relatives isolated from corals. This has allowed us to speculate on the likely biosynthetic interrelationships between structurally similar metabolites, and then propose some likely key carbon-to-carbon bond forming reactions that are followed in vivo in linking macrocyclic cembranoids to their polycyclic congeners. Biomimetic synthesis studies, which vindicate some of the biosynthetic speculations, are interweaved in the discussion.

Total synthesis of (+)-intricarene using a biogenetically patterned pathway from (-)-bipinnatin J, involving a novel transannular [5+2] (1,3-dipolar) cycloaddition.

An asymmetric synthesis of the furanobutenolide-based macrocyclic diterpene (-)-bipinnatin J (4a) isolated from the gorgonian octocoral Pseudopterogorgonia bipinnata is described. The synthesis is based on elaboration of the chiral lactone-substituted vinyl iodide 26b from (+)-glycidol, followed by an intermolecular Stille coupling reaction with the stannylfurfural 27, leading to 28a, and then an intramolecular Nozaki-Hiyama-Kishi allylation reaction, 28b --> 4a. Treatment of (-)-bipinnatin J (4a) with VO(acac)2-tBuO2H followed by acetylation of the tautomeric hydroxypyranone product 7/8, next gave the acetoxypyrone 30. When the acetoxypyranone 30 was heated in acetonitrile in the presence of DBU, it gave (+)-intricarene 1, which is found in P. kallos, via a novel transannular [5+2] (or 1,3-dipolar) cycloaddition involving the butenolide-oxidopyrylium ion intermediate 31. We believe that this total synthesis of (+)-intricarene 1 mimics its most likely origin in nature via oxidation of (-)-bipinnatin J (4a), presumably involving photochemically generated singlet oxygen or possibly a P450 monooxygenase enzyme system.

A concise total synthesis of (+/-)-anthecularin.

A total synthesis of the novel sesquiterpene anthecularin 1, isolated from Greek Anthemis auriculata, based on an intramolecular [5+2] (1,3-dipolar) cycloaddition involving the oxidopyrylium ion 12 derived from the furanmethanol 9, is described.

A new synthetic approach to (+)-lactacystin based on radical cyclisation of enantiopure alpha-ethynyl substituted serine derivatives to 4-methylenepyrrolidinones.

Treatment of the acetylenic bromoamide 42c, derived from the enantiopure alpha-amino alcohol 40, with Bu(3)SnH-AlBN results in an efficient 5-exo dig radical cyclisation to the 4-methylenepyrrolidinone 43/44 (2:1). Cleavage of the alkene bond in 43/44, using O(3)-Me(2)S, next gave the corresponding 4-ketopyrrolidinone 45/46. Alpha-phenylsulfanylation of 45/46, using S-methyl-p-toluenethiosulfonate-Et(3)N, proceeded in a stereoselective manner and led to the methylsulfanyl derivative 48 (ca. 9:1 selectivity). Manipulation of the functionality in 48, using two separate sequences, then led to the substituted pyrrolidinones 49b, 50 and 53 which are advanced intermediates in a previous synthesis of (+)-lactacystin 1. In related studies, the acetylenic bromoamide 28a containing all the carbon atoms in lactacystin was synthesised, but this substrate failed to undergo an anticipated radical cyclisation to the 4-methylenepyrrolidinone 30, analogous to 43/44. Instead, only the product of reduction of 28a, i.e. 28b, was produced, possibly resulting from adventitious intramolecular hydrogen-abstraction processes from the carbon centred radical intermediate 29, i.e. 32 to 33 and/or 31 to 34.

A concise and straightforward total synthesis of (+/-)-salinosporamide A, based on a biosynthesis model.

A 14-step total synthesis of (+/-)-salinosporamide A (1), a potent inhibitor of the 20S proteasome isolated from the marine bacterium Salinospora tropica, is described. The synthesis is based on a diastereoselective intramolecular aldolisation of a substituted beta-keto amide intermediate, i.e. 13, derived from a beta-keto acid, viz. 21, and an alpha-amino malonate, leading to the pyrrolidinone ring 24 in the natural product. This synthetic approach closely mimics the origin of the pyrrolidinone ring in salinosporamide A in vivo. Another key feature of the total synthesis is a regioselective reduction of the malonate derivative 31 to the key aldehyde intermediate 32, using Super-hydride.

Novel polyoxazole-based cyclopeptides from Streptomyces sp. Total synthesis of the cyclopeptide YM-216391 and synthetic studies towards telomestatin.

A convergent, complementary, synthetic approach to the contiguously linked tris-oxazole units 10, 11 and 12 in telomestatin (1) and YM-216391 (2) is described. The route involves coupling reactions between oxazole 4-carboxylic acids, viz 16a, 16c, 16d and oxazole 2-substituted methylamines, viz 16b, 16e, 17, leading to the amides 18 and 21, followed by cyclodehydrations to the corresponding bis-oxazole oxazolines, e.g. 19, and oxidations of the latter using well-established protocols. The tris-oxazoles 11 and 12 were next converted stepwise into the hexa-oxazole bis-macrolactams 33. Although the bis-macrolactams 33 (cf. 28) could be converted into the corresponding oxazoline-hexa-oxazoles 34 and to the enamides 35, neither of these intermediates could be elaborated to the hepta-oxazole 30en route to telomestatin 1. Likewise, neither the hexa-oxazole 47 or application of an intramolecular Hantzsch oxazole ring-forming reaction from 44b allowed access to the advanced polyoxazole-macrolactam intermediates 48 and 30a, respectively, towards telomestatin. Combination of the tris-oxazole based methylamine 70 with the dipeptide carboxylic acid 71 derived from D-valine and L-isoleucine, leads to the corresponding amide which, in two straightforward steps, is converted into the -amino acid 78. Macrolactamisation of 78, using HATU, next produces the cyclopeptide 79 which is then elaborated to the thiazole and oxazole based cyclopeptide YM-216391 (2). The synthetic cyclopeptide 2 is shown to be the enantiomer of the natural product isolated from Streptomyces nobilis.

Total synthesis of (-)-ulapualide A, a novel tris-oxazole macrolide from marine nudibranchs, based on some biosynthesis speculation.

A new, second generation, total synthesis of ulapualide A (1), whose stereochemistry was recently determined from X-ray analysis of its complex with the protein actin, is described. The synthesis is designed and based on some speculation of the biosynthetic origin of the contiguous tris-oxazole unit in ulapualide A, alongside that of the related co-metabolites that contain only two oxazole rings, e.g. 6 and 7. The mono-oxazole carboxylic acid 67b and the mono-oxazole secondary 55b alcohol which, together, contain all of the 10 asymmetric centres in the natural metabolite, were first elaborated using a combination of contemporary asymmetric synthesis protocols. Esterification of 67b with 55b under Yamaguchi conditions gave the ester 77 which was then converted into the omega-amino acid 18a following simultaneous deprotection of the t-butyl ester and the N-Boc protecting groups. Macrolactamisation of 18a, using HATU, now gave the key intermediate macrolactam 17, containing two of the three oxazole rings in ulapualide A (1). A number of procedures were used to introduce the third oxazole ring in ulapualide A from 17, including: a) cyclodehydration to the oxazoline 78a followed by oxidation using nickel peroxide leading to 76; b) dehydration to the enamide 79, followed by conversion into the methoxyoxazoline 78b, via 80, and elimination of methanol from 78b using camphorsulfonic acid. The tris-oxazole macrolide 76 was next converted into the aldehyde 82b in four straightforward steps, which was then reacted with N-methylformamide, leading to the E-alkenylformamide 83. Removal of the TBDPS protection at C3 in 83 finally gave (-)-ulapualide A, whose 1H and 13C NMR spectroscopic data were indistinguishable from those obtained for naturally derived material. It is likely that the tris-oxazole unit in ulapualide A (1) is derived in nature from a cascade of cyclodehydrations from an acylated tris-serine precursor, e.g.9, followed by oxidation of the resulting tris-oxazoline intermediate, i.e.10. It is also plausible to speculate that the biosynthesis of metabolites related to ulapualide A, e.g. the bis-oxazole 6 and the imide 7, involve cyclisations of just two of the serine units in 9. These speculations were given some credence by carrying out pertinent interconversions involving the bis-oxazole amide 24, the enamide 25, the imide 26, the oxazoline 27 and the tris-oxazole 30 as model compounds. An alternative strategy to the tris-oxazole macrolide intermediate 76 was also examined, involving preliminary synthesis of the aldehyde 73, containing a shortened (C25-C34) side chain from 67b and 47b. A Wadsworth-Emmons olefination reaction between 73 and the phosphonate ester 74 led smoothly to the E-alkene 75, but we were not able to reduce selectively the conjugated enone group in 75 to 76 without simultaneous reduction of the oxazole alkene bond, using a variety of reagents and reaction conditions.

Synthesis of libraries of thiazole, oxazole and imidazole-based cyclic peptides from azole-based amino acids. A new synthetic approach to bistratamides and didmolamides.

Treatment of a 1 : 1 mixture of the thiazole-based amino acids 8a and 8b with FDPP-i-Pr(2)NEt in CH(3)CN gave a mixture of the cyclic trimers 14, 15, 16 and 17 and the cyclic tetramers 19 and 23 in the ratio 2 : 7 : 5 : 8 : 1 : 1 and in a combined yield of 70%. Separate coupling reactions between the bisimidazole amino acid 45 and the thiazole/oxazole amino acids 43a and 42a in the presence of FDPP-i-Pr(2)NEt led to the bisimidazole based cyclic trimers 55 and 57 respectively (54-57%) and to the cyclic tetramer 56 (8-11%). Similar coupling reactions involving the bisthiazole and bisoxazole amino acids 49 and 47 with the imidazole/oxazole/thiazole amino acids 41a, 42a and 43a gave rise to the library of oxazole, thiazole and imidazole-based cyclic peptides 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64 and 65. A coupling reaction between the bisthiazole amino acid 49 and the oxazole amino acid 73 led to an efficient (36% overall) synthesis of bistratamide H (67) found in the ascidian Lissoclinum bistratum. Coupling reactions involving oxazolines with thiazole amino acids were less successful. Thus, a coupling reaction between the phenylalanine-based oxazoline amino acid 71a and either the thiazole amino acid 8a or the bisthiazole amino acid 74 gave only a 2% yield of the cyclic hexapeptide didmolamide A (4) found in the ascidian Didemnum molle. Didmolamide B (68) was obtained in 9% yield from a coupling reaction between 74 and the phenylalanine threonine amino acid 72, using either FDPP or DPPA.

Cascade radical-mediated cyclisations with conjugated ynone electrophores. An approach to the synthesis of steroids and other novel ring-fused polycyclic carbocycles.

A cascade radical-mediated Diels-Alder reaction with the iododienynone 16b produced the tricyclic ketone 17 (22%). By contrast, treatment of the substituted furans 36 and 47 with Bu(3)SnH-AIBN, instead led to the tetracycles 44 and 58 respectively, rather than the anticipated oestranes, i.e. 38 and 48. In a separate study, attempted cascade radical-mediated cyclisations from the ortho-aryl substituted iododienynones 72 and 73, leading to the ring-D aromatic steroid 7, instead gave the macrocyclic ketone 76 or the novel bridged tricycles 77/82, respectively, depending on whether benzene or heptane was used as solvent in the reactions.

The structural determinants of macrolide-actin binding: in silico insights.

By the use of x-ray structures and flexible docking, we have developed the first in silico ligand-based view of the structural determinants of the binding of small molecule mimics of gelsolin, natural products bound to actin. Our technique highlights those residues on the actin binding site forming important hydrophobic and hydrogen-bonding interactions with the ligands. Significantly, through the flexible docking of toxin fragments, we have also identified potential residues on the actin binding site that have yet to be exploited. Guided by these observations, we have demonstrated that kabiramide C can be modified to produce a structure with a predicted binding energy increased by 20% while the molecular mass is reduced by 20%, clearly indicating the potential for future elaboration of structures targeting this important component of the cytoskeleton.

Marine metabolites: metal binding and metal complexes of azole-based cyclic peptides of marine origin.

Azole-based cyclic peptides found in ascidians ("sea squirts") of the genus Lissoclinum have a high propensity to chelate metal ions. This Highlight summarises the current evidence for marine cyclic peptide-metal congruence, and the structural and stereochemical features in cyclic peptides which seem necessary to facilitate metal complexation. The biological relevance of the metal ions in these associations, including their possible role in the assembly of cyclic peptides in the marine milieu, is also briefly considered. Finally, the synthesis of natural, and some novel non-natural, azole-based cyclic peptides from the cyclooligomerisation and assembly of azole-based amino acids, including in the presence of metal ions, is presented.

A concise total synthesis of salinosporamide A.

A concise and straightforward 14-step total synthesis of (+/-)-salinosporamide A, based on a diastereoselective acid-catalysed intramolecular cyclisation of to the pyrrolidinone , and a regioselective reduction of the malonate derivative 8b to the aldehyde 9, is described.