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Premise: The functional annotation of genes is a crucial component of genomic analyses. A common way to summarize functional annotations is with hierarchical gene ontologies, such as the Gene Ontology (GO) Resource. GO includes information about the cellular location, molecular function(s), and products/processes that genes produce or are involved in. For a set of genes, summarizing GO annotations using pre-defined, higher-order terms (GO slims) is often desirable in order to characterize the overall function of the data set, and it is impractical to do this manually. Methods and Results: The GOgetter pipeline consists of bash and Python scripts. From an input FASTA file of nucleotide gene sequences, it outputs text and image files that list (1) the best hit for each input gene in a set of reference gene models, (2) all GO terms and annotations associated with those hits, and (3) a summary and visualization of GO slim categories for the data set. These output files can be queried further and analyzed statistically, depending on the downstream need(s). Conclusions: GO annotations are a widely used "universal language" for describing gene functions and products. GOgetter is a fast and easy-to-implement pipeline for obtaining, summarizing, and visualizing GO slim categories associated with a set of genes.
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Ferns are the second largest clade of vascular plants with over 10,000 species, yet the generation of genomic resources for the group has lagged behind other major clades of plants. Transcriptomic data have proven to be a powerful tool to assess phylogenetic relationships, using thousands of markers that are largely conserved across the genome, and without the need to sequence entire genomes. We assembled the largest nuclear phylogenetic dataset for ferns to date, including 2884 single-copy nuclear loci from 247 transcriptomes (242 ferns, five outgroups), and investigated phylogenetic relationships across the fern tree, the placement of whole genome duplications (WGDs), and gene retention patterns following WGDs. We generated a well-supported phylogeny of ferns and identified several regions of the fern phylogeny that demonstrate high levels of gene tree-species tree conflict, which largely correspond to areas of the phylogeny that have been difficult to resolve. Using a combination of approaches, we identified 27 WGDs across the phylogeny, including 18 large-scale events (involving more than one sampled taxon) and nine small-scale events (involving only one sampled taxon). Most inferred WGDs occur within single lineages (e.g., orders, families) rather than on the backbone of the phylogeny, although two inferred events are shared by leptosporangiate ferns (excluding Osmundales) and Polypodiales (excluding Lindsaeineae and Saccolomatineae), clades which correspond to the majority of fern diversity. We further examined how retained duplicates following WGDs compared across independent events and found that functions of retained genes were largely convergent, with processes involved in binding, responses to stimuli, and certain organelles over-represented in paralogs while processes involved in transport, organelles derived from endosymbiotic events, and signaling were under-represented. To date, our study is the most comprehensive investigation of the nuclear fern phylogeny, though several avenues for future research remain unexplored.
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Fishes of the family Catostomidae ("suckers"; Teleostei: Cypriniformes) are hypothesized to have undergone an allopolyploidy event approximately 60 Ma. However, genomic evidence has previously been unavailable to assess this hypothesis. We sequenced and assembled the first chromosome-level catostomid genome, Chinese sucker (Myxocyprinus asiaticus), and present clear evidence of a catostomid-specific whole-genome duplication (WGD) event ("Cat-4R"). Our results reveal remarkably strong, conserved synteny since this duplication event, as well as between Myxocyprinus and an unduplicated outgroup, zebrafish (Danio rerio). Gene content and repetitive elements are also approximately evenly distributed across homeologous chromosomes, suggesting that both subgenomes retain some function, with no obvious bias in gene fractionation or subgenome dominance. The Cat-4R duplication provides another independent example of genome evolution following WGD in animals, in this case at the extreme end of conserved genome architecture over at least 25.2 Myr since the duplication. The M. asiaticus genome is a useful resource for researchers interested in understanding genome evolution following WGD in animals.
