Inhibitory activity of bacterial lipopeptides against Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. Strigae.

This study investigated the influence of bacterial cyclic lipopeptides (LP; surfactins, iturins, fengycins) on microbial interactions. The objective was to investigate whether the presence of bacteria inhibits fungal growth and whether this inhibition is due to the release of bacterial metabolites, particularly LP. Selected endophytic bacterial strains with known plant-growth promoting potential were cultured in the presence of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. strigae (Fos), which was applied as model fungal organism. The extracellular metabolome of tested bacteria, with a focus on LP, was characterized, and the inhibitory effect of bacterial LP on fungal growth was investigated. The results showed that Bacillus velezensis GB03 and FZB42, as well as B. subtilis BSn5 exhibited the strongest antagonism against Fos. Paraburkholderia phytofirmans PsJN, on the other hand, tended to have a slight, though non-significant growth promotion effect. Crude LP from strains GB03 and FZB42 had the strongest inhibitory effect on Fos, with a significant inhibition of spore germination and damage of the hyphal structure. Liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry revealed the production of several variants of iturin, fengycin, and surfactin LP families from strains GB03, FZB42, and BSn5, with varying intensity. Using plate cultures, bacillomycin D fractions were detected in higher abundance in strains GB03, FZB42, and BSn5 in the presence of Fos. Additionally, the presence of Fos in dual plate culture triggered an increase in bacillomycin D production from the Bacillus strains. The study demonstrated the potent antagonistic effect of certain Bacillus strains (i.e., GB03, FZB42, BSn5) on Fos development. Our findings emphasize the crucial role of microbial interactions in shaping the co-existence of microbial assemblages.

Responses of the blood acid-base balance and blood plasma metabolomics of broiler chickens after change to diets with high free amino acid levels.

Free amino acids (AA) are needed to fulfill the AA requirements of broiler chickens in diets low in CP. This study investigated whether the acid-base balance and the blood plasma metabolome are affected immediately after a change to diets with high free AA levels. Male broiler chickens received a starter diet with 164 g CP/kg and 80 g soy protein isolate/kg until d 7 post-hatch. From this day on, birds were offered a diet almost identical to the starter diet (0FAA) or 2 diets with 50% (50FAA) or 100% (100FAA) of the digestible AA from soy protein isolate substituted with free AA. Blood was sampled to determine the acid-base status and for untargeted metabolomics analysis on d 0, 1, 2, 4, 7, and 14 and d 1, 7, and 14 after diet change, respectively (n = 14 birds/treatment). Compared to 0FAA, blood pH was decreased on d 4 and 7 for 100FAA and on d 4 for 50FAA (P ≤ 0.019). On d 4, 7, and 14, bicarbonate, base excess, and total carbon dioxide were lower for 100FAA than for 0FAA (P ≤ 0.006). The partial pressure of carbon dioxide was higher for 50FAA than for 0FAA on d 4 (P = 0.047). Compared to 0FAA, chloride was higher for 100FAA on d 1, 2, 4, 7, and 14, and for 50FAA on d 1, 2, and 4 (P ≤ 0.030). In the metabolomics assay, 602, 463, and 302 metabolites were affected by treatment on d 1, 7, and 14, respectively (P < 0.050), but they did not indicate that metabolic pathways were affected. Flavonoids were the most consistently affected category of metabolites. The results indicated a metabolic acidosis for 100FAA from d 4 to 7 and a respiratory acidosis for 50FAA on d 4 after diet change. These types of acidosis were compensated later on in the experiment. The metabolomics analysis did not indicate that high free AA inclusion affected metabolic pathways.

A novel, robust peptidyl-lys metalloendopeptidase from Trametes coccinea recombinantly expressed in Komagataella phaffii.

A novel peptidyl-lys metalloendopeptidase (Tc-LysN) from Tramates coccinea was recombinantly expressed in Komagataella phaffii using the native pro-protein sequence. The peptidase was secreted into the culture broth as zymogen (~38 kDa) and mature enzyme (~19.8 kDa) simultaneously. The mature Tc-LysN was purified to homogeneity with a single step anion-exchange chromatography at pH 7.2. N-terminal sequencing using TMTpro Zero and mass spectrometry of the mature Tc-LysN indicated that the pro-peptide was cleaved between the amino acid positions 184 and 185 at the Kex2 cleavage site present in the native pro-protein sequence. The pH optimum of Tc-LysN was determined to be 5.0 while it maintained ≥60% activity between pH values 4.5-7.5 and ≥30% activity between pH values 8.5-10.0, indicating its broad applicability. The temperature maximum of Tc-LysN was determined to be 60 °C. After 18 h of incubation at 80 °C, Tc-LysN still retained ~20% activity. Organic solvents such as methanol and acetonitrile, at concentrations as high as 40% (v/v), were found to enhance Tc-LysN's activity up to ~100% and ~50%, respectively. Tc-LysN's thermostability, ability to withstand up to 8 M urea, tolerance to high concentrations of organic solvents, and an acidic pH optimum make it a viable candidate to be employed in proteomics workflows in which alkaline conditions might pose a challenge. The nano-LC-MS/MS analysis revealed bovine serum albumin (BSA)'s sequence coverage of 84% using Tc-LysN which was comparable to the sequence coverage of 90% by trypsin peptides. KEY POINTS: •A novel LysN from Trametes coccinea (Tc-LysN) was expressed in Komagataella phaffii and purified to homogeneity •Tc-LysN is thermostable, applicable over a broad pH range, and tolerates high concentrations of denaturants •Tc-LysN was successfully applied for protein digestion and mass spectrometry fingerprinting.

Characterization ofantifungal properties of lipopeptide-producing Bacillus velezensis strains and their proteome-based response to the phytopathogens, Diaporthe spp.

Introduction: B. velezensis strains are of interest in agricultural applications due to their beneficial interactions with plants, notable through their antimicrobial activity. The biocontrol ability of two new lipopeptides-producing B. velezensis strains ES1-02 and EFSO2-04, against fungal phytopathogens of Diaporthe spp., was evaluated and compared with reference strains QST713 and FZB42. All strains were found to be effective against the plant pathogens, with the new strains showing comparable antifungal activity to QST713 and slightly lower activity than FZB42. Methods: Lipopeptides and their isoforms were identified by high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) and mass spectrometric measurements. The associated antifungal influences were determined in direct in vitro antagonistic dual culture assays, and the inhibitory growth effects on Diaporthe spp. as representatives of phytopathogenic fungi were determined. The effects on bacterial physiology of selected B. velezensis strains were analyzed by mass spectrometric proteomic analyses using nano-LC-MS/MS. Results and Discussion: Lipopeptide production analysis revealed that all strains produced surfactin, and one lipopeptide of the iturin family, including bacillomycin L by ES1-02 and EFSO2-04, while QST713 and FZB42 produced iturin A and bacillomycin D, respectively. Fengycin production was however only detected in the reference strains. As a result of co-incubation of strain ES1-02 with the antagonistic phytopathogen D. longicolla, an increase in surfactin production of up to 10-fold was observed, making stress induction due to competitors an attractive strategy for surfactin bioproduction. An associated global proteome analysis showed a more detailed overview about the adaptation and response mechanisms of B. velezensis, including an increased abundance of proteins associated with the biosynthesis of antimicrobial compounds. Furthermore, higher abundance was determined for proteins associated with oxidative, nitrosative, and general stress response. In contrast, proteins involved in phosphate uptake, amino acid transport, and translation were decreased in abundance. Altogether, this study provides new insights into the physiological adaptation of lipopeptide-producing B. velezensis strains, which show the potential for use as biocontrol agents with respect to phytopathogenic fungi.

Mineral and Phytic Acid Content as Well as Phytase Activity in Flours and Breads Made from Different Wheat Species.

Wheat is of high importance for a healthy and sustainable diet for the growing world population, partly due to its high mineral content. However, several minerals are bound in a phytate complex in the grain and unavailable to humans. We performed a series of trials to compare the contents of minerals and phytic acid as well as phytase activity in several varieties from alternative wheat species spelt, emmer and einkorn with common wheat. Additionally, we investigated the potential of recent popular bread making recipes in German bakeries to reduce phytic acid content, and thus increase mineral bioavailability in bread. For all studied ingredients, we found considerable variance both between varieties within a species and across wheat species. For example, whole grain flours, particularly from emmer and einkorn, appear to have higher mineral content than common wheat, but also a higher phytic acid content with similar phytase activity. Bread making recipes had a greater effect on phytic acid content in the final bread than the choice of species for whole grain flour production. Recipes with long yeast proofing or sourdough and the use of whole grain rye flour in a mixed wheat bread minimized the phytic acid content in the bread. Consequently, optimizing food to better nourish a growing world requires close collaboration between research organizations and practical stakeholders ensuring a streamlined sustainable process from farm to fork.

Analysis of Peptide Hormone Maturation and Processing Specificity Using Isotope-Labeled Peptides.

Many peptide hormones and growth factors in plants, particularly the small posttranslationally modified signaling peptides, are synthesized as larger precursor proteins. Proteolytic processing is thus required for peptide maturation, and additional posttranslational modifications may contribute to bioactivity. To what extent these posttranslational modifications impact on processing is largely unknown. Likewise, it is poorly understood how the cleavage sites within peptide precursors are selected by specific processing proteases, and whether or not posttranslational modifications contribute to cleavage site recognition. Here, we describe a mass spectrometry-based approach to address these questions. We developed a method using heavy isotope labeling to directly compare cleavage efficiency of different precursor-derived synthetic peptides by mass spectrometry. Thereby, we can analyze the effect of posttranslational modifications on processing and the specific sequence requirements of the processing proteases. As an example, we describe how this method has been used to assess the relevance of tyrosine sulfation for the processing of the Arabidopsis CIF4 precursor by the subtilase SBT5.4.

Improved Identification of Protease Cleavage Sites by In-gel Reductive Dimethylation.

A critical step in the functional characterization of proteases is the identification of physiologically relevant substrates, which often starts with a collection of candidate proteins. To test these candidates and identify specific processing sites, in vitro cleavage assays are typically used, followed by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) to separate and visualize the cleavage products. For the identification of cleavage sites, the sequences at the N- or C-terminal ends of the cleavage products need to be identified, which is the most challenging step in this procedure. Here, we describe a method for the reliable identification of the N-termini of polypeptides after separation by SDS-PAGE. The procedure relies on in-gel labeling of the N-terminal-free amino group by reductive dimethylation, followed by tryptic digestion and analysis of resulting peptides by mass spectrometry. N-terminal peptides are readily identified by the 28 Da mass dimethyl tag linked to their first amino acid.

Characterization of Bacillus velezensis UTB96, Demonstrating Improved Lipopeptide Production Compared to the Strain B. velezensis FZB42.

Bacillus strains can produce various lipopeptides, known for their antifungal properties. This makes them attractive metabolites for applications in agriculture. Therefore, identification of productive wild-type strains is essential for the development of biopesticides. Bacillus velezensis FZB42 is a well-established strain for biocontrol of plant pathogens in agriculture. Here, we characterized an alternative strain, B. velezensis UTB96, that can produce higher amounts of all three major lipopeptide families, namely surfactin, fengycin, and iturin. UTB96 produces iturin A. Furthermore, UTB96 showed superior antifungal activity towards the soybean fungal pathogen Diaporthe longicolla compared to FZB42. Moreover, the additional provision of different amino acids for lipopeptide production in UTB96 was investigated. Lysine and alanine had stimulatory effects on the production of all three lipopeptide families, while supplementation of leucine, valine and isoleucine decreased the lipopeptide bioproduction. Using a 45-litre bioreactor system for upscaling in batch culture, lipopeptide titers of about 140 mg/L surfactin, 620 mg/L iturin A, and 45 mg/L fengycin were achieved. In conclusion, it becomes clear that B. velezensis UTB96 is a promising strain for further research application in the field of agricultural biological controls of fungal diseases.

Life at the periphery: what makes CHO cells survival talents.

The production of biopharmaceuticals relies on robust cell systems that can produce recombinant proteins at high levels and grow and survive in the stressful bioprocess environment. Chinese hamster ovary cells (CHO) as the main production hosts offer a variety of advantages including robust growth and survival in a bioprocess environment. Cell surface proteins are of special interest for the understanding of how CHO cells react to their environment while maintaining growth and survival phenotypes, since they enable cellular reactions to external stimuli and potentially initiate signaling pathways. To provide deeper insight into functions of this special cell surface sub-proteome, pathway enrichment analysis of the determined CHO surfaceome was conducted. Enrichment of growth/ survival-pathways such as the phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K)-protein kinase B (AKT), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), Janus kinase/signal transducers and activators of transcription (JAK-STAT), and RAP1 pathways were observed, offering novel insights into how cell surface receptors and ligand-mediated signaling enable the cells to grow and survive in a bioprocess environment. When supplementing surfaceome data with RNA expression data, several growth/survival receptors were shown to be co-expressed with their respective ligands and thus suggesting self-induction mechanisms, while other receptors or ligands were not detectable. As data about the presence of surface receptors and their associated expressed ligands may serve as base for future studies, further pathway characterization will enable the implementation of optimization strategies to further enhance cellular growth and survival behavior. KEY POINTS: • PI3K/AKT, MAPK, JAK-STAT, and RAP1 pathway receptors are enriched on the CHO cell surface and downstream pathways present on mRNA level. • Detected pathways indicate strong CHO survival and growth phenotypes. • Potential self-induction of surface receptors and respective ligands.

Dynamic changes in O-GlcNAcylation regulate osteoclast differentiation and bone loss via nucleoporin 153.

Bone mass is maintained by the balance between osteoclast-induced bone resorption and osteoblast-triggered bone formation. In inflammatory arthritis such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA), however, increased osteoclast differentiation and activity skew this balance resulting in progressive bone loss. O-GlcNAcylation is a posttranslational modification with attachment of a single O-linked ß-D-N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAc) residue to serine or threonine residues of target proteins. Although O-GlcNAcylation is one of the most common protein modifications, its role in bone homeostasis has not been systematically investigated. We demonstrate that dynamic changes in O-GlcNAcylation are required for osteoclastogenesis. Increased O-GlcNAcylation promotes osteoclast differentiation during the early stages, whereas its downregulation is required for osteoclast maturation. At the molecular level, O-GlcNAcylation affects several pathways including oxidative phosphorylation and cell-cell fusion. TNFα fosters the dynamic regulation of O-GlcNAcylation to promote osteoclastogenesis in inflammatory arthritis. Targeted pharmaceutical or genetic inhibition of O-GlcNAc transferase (OGT) or O-GlcNAcase (OGA) arrests osteoclast differentiation during early stages of differentiation and during later maturation, respectively, and ameliorates bone loss in experimental arthritis. Knockdown of NUP153, an O-GlcNAcylation target, has similar effects as OGT inhibition and inhibits osteoclastogenesis. These findings highlight an important role of O-GlcNAcylation in osteoclastogenesis and may offer the potential to therapeutically interfere with pathologic bone resorption.

New Approaches to Manage Asian Soybean Rust (Phakopsora pachyrhizi) Using Trichoderma spp. or Their Antifungal Secondary Metabolites.

Attempts have been made to determine the in vitro and in planta suppressive potential of particular Trichoderma strains (T16 and T23) and their secondary metabolites (SMs) against Asian soybean rust (ASR) incited by Phakopsora pachyrhizi. Aside from the previously identified SMs 6-pentyl-α-pyrone (6PAP) and viridiofungin A (VFA), the chemical structures of harzianic acid (HA), iso-harzianic acid (iso-HA), and harzianolide (HZL) were characterized in this study. Our results indicate that exposure of urediospores to 200 ppm 6PAP completely inhibits germination. A slightly higher dosage (250 ppm) of HZL and VFA reduces germination by 53.7% and 44%, respectively. Germ tube elongation seems more sensitive to 6PAP than urediospore germination. On detached leaves, application of conidia of T16 and T23 results in 81.4% and 74.3% protection, respectively. Likewise, 200 ppm 6PAP recorded the highest ASR suppression (98%), followed by HZL (78%) and HA (69%). Treatment of undetached leaves with 6PAP, HA, or HZL reduces ASR severity by 84.2%, 65.8%, and 50.4%, respectively. Disease reduction on the next, untreated trifoliate by T23 (53%), T16 (41%), HZL (42%), and 6PAP (32%) suggests a translocation or systemic activity of the SMs and their producers. To our knowledge, this study provides the first proof for controlling ASR using antifungal SMs of Trichoderma. Our findings strongly recommend the integration of these innovative metabolites, particularly 6PAP and/or their producers in ASR management strategies.

Peptide Backbone Modifications for the Assessment of Cleavage Site Relevance in Precursors of Signaling Peptides.

The physiological relevance of site-specific precursor processing for the biogenesis of peptide hormones and growth factors can be demonstrated in genetic complementation experiments, in which a gain of function is observed for the cleavable wild-type precursor, but not for a non-cleavable precursor mutant. Similarly, cleavable and non-cleavable synthetic peptides can be used in bioassays to test whether processing is required for bioactivity. In genetic complementation experiments, site-directed mutagenesis has to be used to mask a processing site against proteolysis. Peptide-based bioassays have the distinctive advantage that peptides can be protected against proteolytic cleavage by backbone modifications, i.e., without changing the amino acid sequence. Peptide backbone modifications have been employed to increase the metabolic stability of peptide drugs, and in basic research, to investigate whether processing at a certain site is required for precursor maturation and formation of the bioactive peptide. For this approach, it is important to show that modification of the peptide backbone has the desired effect and does indeed protect the respective peptide bond against proteolysis. This can be accomplished with the MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry-based assay we describe here.

Surfactin Shows Relatively Low Antimicrobial Activity against Bacillus subtilis and Other Bacterial Model Organisms in the Absence of Synergistic Metabolites.

Surfactin is described as a powerful biosurfactant and is natively produced by Bacillus subtilis in notable quantities. Among other industrially relevant characteristics, antimicrobial properties have been attributed to surfactin-producing Bacillus isolates. To investigate this property, stress approaches were carried out with biotechnologically established strains of Corynebacterium glutamicum, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas putida with the highest possible amounts of surfactin. Contrary to the popular opinion, the highest growth-reducing effects were detectable in B. subtilis and E. coli after surfactin treatment of 100 g/L with 35 and 33%, respectively, while P. putida showed no growth-specific response. In contrast, other antimicrobial biosurfactants, like rhamnolipids and sophorolipids, showed significantly stronger effects on bacterial growth. Since the addition of high amounts of surfactin in defined mineral salt medium reduced the cell growth of B. subtilis by about 40%, the initial stress response at the protein level was analyzed by mass spectrometry, showing induction of stress proteins under control of alternative sigma factors σB and σW as well as the activation of LiaRS two-component system. Overall, although surfactin is associated with antimicrobial properties, relatively low growth-reducing effects could be demonstrated after the surfactin addition, challenging the general claim of the antimicrobial properties of surfactin.

Processing of a plant peptide hormone precursor facilitated by posttranslational tyrosine sulfation.

Most peptide hormones and growth factors are matured from larger inactive precursor proteins by proteolytic processing and further posttranslational modification. Whether or how posttranslational modifications contribute to peptide bioactivity is still largely unknown. We address this question here for TWS1 (Twisted Seed 1), a peptide regulator of embryonic cuticle formation in Arabidopsis thaliana. Using synthetic peptides encompassing the N- and C-terminal processing sites and the recombinant TWS1 precursor as substrates, we show that the precursor is cleaved by the subtilase SBT1.8 at both the N and the C termini of TWS1. Recognition and correct processing at the N-terminal site depended on sulfation of an adjacent tyrosine residue. Arginine 302 of SBT1.8 was found to be required for sulfotyrosine binding and for accurate processing of the TWS1 precursor. The data reveal a critical role for posttranslational modification, here tyrosine sulfation of a plant peptide hormone precursor, in mediating processing specificity and peptide maturation.

Purification and characterization of a fungal aspartic peptidase from Trichoderma reesei and its application for food and animal feed protein hydrolyses.

BACKGROUND: Various neutral and alkaline peptidases are commercially available for use in protein hydrolysis under neutral to alkaline conditions. However, the hydrolysis of proteins under acidic conditions by applying fungal aspartic peptidases (FAPs) has not been investigated in depth so far. The aim of this study, thus, was to purify a FAP from the commercial enzyme preparation, ROHALASE® BXL, determine its biochemical characteristics, and investigate its application for the hydrolysis of food and animal feed proteins under acidic conditions. RESULTS: A Trichoderma reesei derived FAP, with an apparent molecular mass of 45.8 kDa (sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; SDS-PAGE) was purified 13.8-fold with a yield of 37% from ROHALASE® BXL. The FAP was identified as an aspartate protease (UniProt ID: G0R8T0) by inhibition and nano-LC-ESI-MS/MS studies. The FAP showed the highest activity at 50°C and pH 4.0. Monovalent cations, organic solvents, and reducing agents were tolerated well by the FAP. The FAP underwent an apparent competitive product inhibition by soy protein hydrolysate and whey protein hydrolysate with apparent Ki -values of 1.75 and 30.2 mg*mL-1 , respectively. The FAP showed promising results in food (soy protein isolate and whey protein isolate) and animal feed protein hydrolyses. For the latter, an increase in the soluble protein content of 109% was noted after 30 min. CONCLUSION: Our results demonstrate the applicability of fungal aspartic endopeptidases in the food and animal feed industry. Efficient protein hydrolysis of industrially relevant substrates such as acidic whey or animal feed proteins could be conducted by applying fungal aspartic peptidases. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Proteomic differences in apple spur buds from high and non-cropping trees during floral initiation.

The cropping behavior of biennial apple (Malus ×domestica Borkh.) cultivars is irregular and often follows a biennial bearing pattern with 'On' years (high crop load and inhibited floral bud formation) followed by 'Off' years (little crop load and a promoted formation of floral buds). To study proteomic differences between floral and vegetative buds, trees of the strongly alternating cultivar 'Fuji' and the regular bearing cultivar 'Gala' were either completely thinned or not thinned at full bloom to establish two cropping treatments with no ('Off') or a high ('On') crop load, respectively. Student's t-Tests indicated significant differences of protein profiles in buds from 2-year old spurs from both treatments at each sampling date. Abundance patterns of protein clusters coincided with the onset of floral bud initiation and were most noticeable in buds from 'On' trees with a decreased abundance of key enzymes of the phenylpropanoid and flavonoid pathways and an increased abundance of histone deacetylase and ferritins. Furthermore, an increased abundance of proteins involved in histone and DNA methylation was found in the buds from 'Off' trees. This study presents the first large-scale, label-free proteomic profiling of floral and vegetative apple buds during the period of floral bud initiation. SIGNIFICANCE: Although several studies exist that address the complex developmental processes associated with the formation of floral buds in apple (Malus ×domestica Borkh.) at transcriptomic level, no data is available for explaining the difference between floral and vegetative buds or biennial and regular bearing cultivars on a proteomic level. This study presents the first large-scale, label-free proteomic profiling of floral and vegetative apple buds from the two cultivars 'Fuji' and 'Royal Gala' during the period of floral bud initiation and renders possible the development of suitable biomarkers for biennial bearing in apple.

Modeling the time course of ComX: towards molecular process control for Bacillus wild-type cultivations.

Wild-type cultivations are of invaluable relevance for industrial biotechnology when it comes to the agricultural or food sector. Here, genetic engineering is hardly applicable due to legal barriers and consumer's demand for GMO-free products. An important pillar for wild-type cultivations displays the genus Bacillus. One of the challenges for Bacillus cultivations is the global ComX-dependent quorum sensing system. Here, molecular process control can serve as a tool to optimize the production process without genetic engineering. To realize this approach, quantitative knowledge of the mechanism is essential, which, however, is often available only to a limited extent. The presented work provides a case study based on the production of cyclic lipopeptide surfactin, whose expression is in dependence of ComX, using natural producer B. subtilis DSM 10 T. First, a surfactin reference process with 40 g/L of glucose was performed as batch fermentation in a pilot scale bioreactor system to gain novel insights into kinetic behavior of ComX in relation to surfactin production. Interestingly, the specific surfactin productivity did not increase linearly with ComX activity. The data were then used to derive a mathematic model for the time course of ComX in dependence of existing biomass, biomass growth as well as a putative ComX-specific protease. The newly adapted model was validated and transferred to other batch fermentations, employing 20 and 60 g/L glucose. The applied approach can serve as a model system for molecular process control strategies, which can thus be extended to other quorum sensing dependent wild-type cultivations.

The Phtheirospermum japonicum isopentenyltransferase PjIPT1a regulates host cytokinin responses in Arabidopsis.

The hemiparasitic plant Phtheirospermum japonicum (Phtheirospermum) is a nutritional specialist that supplements its nutrient requirements by parasitizing other plants through haustoria. During parasitism, the Phtheirospermum haustorium transfers hypertrophy-inducing cytokinins (CKs) to the infected host root. The CK biosynthesis genes required for haustorium-derived CKs and the induction of hypertrophy are still unknown. We searched for haustorium-expressed isopentenyltransferases (IPTs) that catalyze the first step of CK biosynthesis, confirmed the specific expression by in vivo imaging of a promoter-reporter, and further analyzed the subcellular localization, the enzymatic function and contribution to inducing hypertrophy by studying CRISPR-Cas9-induced Phtheirospermum mutants. PjIPT1a was expressed in intrusive cells of the haustorium close to the host vasculature. PjIPT1a and its closest homolog PjIPT1b located to the cytosol and showed IPT activity in vitro with differences in substrate specificity. Mutating PjIPT1a abolished parasite-induced CK responses in the host. A homolog of PjIPT1a also was identified in the related weed Striga hermonthica. With PjIPT1a, we identified the IPT enzyme that induces CK responses in Phtheirospermum japonicum-infected Arabidopsis roots. We propose that PjIPT1a exemplifies how parasitism-related functions evolve through gene duplications and neofunctionalization.

Comprehensive proteome analysis of bread deciphering the allergenic potential of bread wheat, spelt and rye.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Cereal products like flour and bread are known to trigger diseases such as wheat allergy, celiac disease and non-celiac wheat sensitivity (NCWS). Some of these diseases are caused by allergenic proteins, the expression of which might vary depending on the grain type and manufacturing processes. Therefore, we examined the protein composition and abundance of potentially allergenic proteins in flours from bread wheat, spelt and rye, and corresponding breads. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Using Nano-LC-ESI-MS/MS and label free quantification (LFQ) we analyzed the proteome of six different bread flours (wholegrain and superfine flours from rye, spelt and bread wheat) and 14 bread types (yeast and sourdough fermented breads from all flours and wheat breads plus/minus bread improver). Potentially allergenic proteins in flours and breads were functionally categorized using the Pfam database and relatively quantified by LFQ. RESULTS: We could show that almost equal numbers of proteins can be identified in rye- and spelt samples compared to wheat samples using the Uniprot bread wheat protein database, indicating high sequence conservation between cereals. In total, 4424 proteins were identified in the 20 flour and bread samples. The average number of identified proteins in flour (2719 ± 243) was slightly higher than in bread (2283 ± 232; P < 0.001). In wheat- and spelt wholegrain flour higher protein numbers (wheat: 2891 ± 90; spelt: 2743 ± 140) were identified on average than in superfine flour (wheat: 2562 ± 79; P = 0.009; spelt: 2431 ± 140; P = 0.004). Neither the absolute number nor the abundance distribution of potentially allergenic proteins were dependent on the flour type or the fermentation process, but known allergenic proteins like gliadins showed higher relative abundance in spelt- and wheat samples, compared to rye samples. CONCLUSION: We provide comprehensive proteome data for six flour types and related breads showing that the grain species have greater influence on proteome composition than milling and fermentation processes. Our data indicate that allergenic proteins are not selectively degraded during bread production and are more abundant in bread wheat and spelt compared to rye. SIGNIFICANCE: Our proteomics study revealed that bread contains a number of potentially and proven allergenic proteins. Most likely allergenicity is not dependent on milling or conventional fermentation processes, but on the grain type. Relative abundance of allergenic proteins was higher in spelt- and wheat samples than in rye samples. Considering rye bread as better suited to atopic individuals predisposed to react to cereal allergens, clinical trials are warranted to verify this assumption.

14-3-3 and erlin proteins differentially interact with RIPK2 complexes.

The receptor interacting serine/threonine kinase 2 (RIPK2) is essential for signal transduction induced by the pattern recognition receptors NOD1 and NOD2 (referred to collectively as NOD1/2). Upon NOD1/2 activation, RIPK2 forms complexes in the cytoplasm of human cells. Here, we identified the molecular composition of these complexes. Infection with Shigella flexneri to activate NOD1-RIPK2 revealed that RIPK2 formed dynamic interactions with several cellular proteins, including A20 (also known as TNFAIP3), erlin-1, erlin-2 and 14-3-3. Whereas interaction of RIPK2 with 14-3-3 proteins was strongly reduced upon infection with Shigella, erlin-1 and erlin-2 (erlin-1/2) specifically bound to RIPK2 complexes. The interaction of these proteins with RIPK2 was validated using protein binding assays and immunofluorescence staining. Beside bacterial activation of NOD1/2, depletion of the E3 ubiquitin ligase XIAP and treatment with RIPK2 inhibitors also led to the formation of RIPK2 cytosolic complexes. Although erlin-1/2 were recruited to RIPK2 complexes following XIAP inhibition, these proteins did not associate with RIPK2 structures induced by RIPK2 inhibitors. While the specific recruitment of erlin-1/2 to RIPK2 suggests a role in innate immune signaling, the biological response regulated by the erlin-1/2-RIPK2 association remains to be determined.