Unconditional cash transfers and mental health symptoms among parents with low incomes: Evidence from the 2021 child tax credit.

The COVID-19 pandemic increased anxiety and depression in the U.S. population, particularly among low-income households, parents, and Black and Hispanic adults. To address the negative impacts of the pandemic, Congress temporarily expanded the Child Tax Credit (CTC) in 2021, providing a near-universal, unconditional cash transfer to families with children. Using a quasi-experimental, parameterized difference-in-differences research design, we examine the effects of the 2021 monthly CTC on symptoms of anxiety and depression in a large, national sample of parents with low incomes (N∼15,000). We study potential differences in the associations by race/ethnicity and consider whether CTC effects were stronger after a longer treatment period (for instance, due to greater dosage or delayed effects). We find some evidence that the monthly credit reduced parental anxiety and depression symptoms, although the results were not robust throughout all model specifications. Analyses stratified by race/ethnicity show stronger associations for non-Hispanic Black parents than for non-Hispanic White parents or Hispanic parents, although differences were small. We also find the credit reduced anxiety (but not depression) symptoms after three months of payments, suggesting that it took some time for the CTC to affect mental health symptoms. Overall, this study suggests that recurring cash transfers to families in poverty in the U.S. may have small beneficial effects on parental mental health.

Child Poverty and Health: The Role of Income Support Policies.

Policy Points Child poverty is associated with both short- and long-term health and well-being, and income support policies can be used to improve child health. This article reviews the types of income support policies used in the United States and the evidence of the effectiveness of these policies in improving child health, highlighting areas for future research and policy considerations specific to income support policies.

From zero to thrive: A model of cross-system and cross-sector relational health to promote early childhood development across the child-serving ecosystem.

Early relational health between caregivers and children is foundational for child health and well-being. Children and caregivers are also embedded within multiple systems and sectors, or a "child-serving ecosystem", that shapes child development. Although the COVID-19 pandemic has made this embeddedness abundantly clear, systems remain siloed and lack coordination. Fostering relational health amongst layers of this ecosystem may be a way to systematically support young children and families who are facing adversity. We integrate theory, examples, and empirical findings to develop a conceptual model informed by infant mental health and public health frameworks that illustrates how relational health across the child-serving ecosystem may promote child health and well-being at a population level. Our model articulates what relational health looks like across levels of this ecosystem from primary caregiver-child relationships, to secondary relationships between caregivers and child-serving systems, to tertiary relationships among systems that shape child outcomes directly and indirectly. We posit that positive relational health across levels is critical for promoting child health and well-being broadly. We provide examples of evidence-based approaches that address primary, secondary, and tertiary relational health, and suggest ways to promote relational health through cross-sector training and psychoeducation in the science of early development. This model conceptualizes relational health across the child-serving ecosystem and can serve as a template for promoting child health and well-being in the context of adversity.

La salud de la temprana relación entre quienes prestan cuidado y los niños es fundamental para la salud y el bienestar del niño. Los niños y quienes les cuidan forman parte de múltiples sistemas y sectores, o un "ecosistema de servicio al niño," que moldea el desarrollo del niño. Aunque la pandemia del COVID-19 ha demostrado abundante y claramente esta pertenencia, los sistemas permanecen aislados y les hace falta coordinación. Fomentar la salud de la relación entre las capas del ecosistema pudiera ser una manera de apoyar sistemáticamente a los niños pequeños y familias que se enfrentan con situaciones adversas. Presentamos un modelo conceptual con base en marcos de trabajo de la salud mental infantil y la salud pública que ilustra cómo la salud de la relación a lo largo del ecosistema de servicio al niño pudiera promover el desarrollo del niño al nivel de grupo de población. Nuestro modelo articula cómo aparece la salud de la relación a lo largo de los niveles del ecosistema desde las relaciones entre quien presta el cuidado primario y el niño, hasta las relaciones secundarias entre quienes prestan el cuidado y loa sistemas de servicio al niño, y las relaciones terciarias entre sistemas que amoldan directa e indirectamente los resultados en el niño. Una positiva salud de la relación a través de todos los niveles es esencial para promover la salud y el bienestar del niño de manera amplia. Describimos ejemplos específicos de salud de la relación primaria, secundaria y terciaria, y sugerimos maneras de promover la salud de la relación a través del entrenamiento intersectorial y la educación sicológica dentro de la ciencia del desarrollo temprano. Este modelo conceptualiza la salud de la relación a lo largo del ecosistema de servicio al niño y puede ser un esquema patrón para promover el desarrollo del niño dentro del contexto de situaciones adversas.

La Santé Relationnelle Précoce entre les personnes prenant soin des enfants et les enfants est fondamentale pour la santé de l'enfant et son bien-être. Les enfants et les personnes prenant soin d'eux sont encastrés dans de multiples systèmes et des secteurs, ou un « écosystème ¼ servant l'enfant qui forme le développement de l'enfant. Bien que la pandémie du Covid19 ait rendu cet encastrement très clair, les systèmes demeurent compartimentés et manquent de coordination. Cultiver la santé relationnelle au sein des couches de l'écosystème pourrait s'avérer être une manière de soutenir des jeunes enfants et les familles faisant face aux obstacles. Nous présentons un modèle conceptuel informé par les structures de la santé mentale du nourrisson et de la santé publique qui illustre la manière dont la santé relationnelle au travers de l'écosystème servant les enfants peut promouvoir le développement de l'enfant au niveau de la population. Notre modèle articule ce à quoi la santé relationnelle ressemble au travers des niveaux de l'écosystème, des relations entre la personne principale qui s'occupe de l'enfant et l'enfant aux relations secondaires entre les personnes prenant soin de l'enfant et les systèmes servant l'enfant, jusqu'aux relations tertiaires entres les systèmes qui donnent forme aux résultats directement et indirectement. Une santé relationnelle positive au travers de tous les niveaux est critique pour la promotion de la santé de l'enfant et de son bien-être en général. Nous décrivons des exemples spécifiques de santé relationnelle primaire, secondaire et tertiaire, et suggérons des manières de promouvoir la santé relationnelle au travers de la formation entre secteurs et de la psychoéducation dans la science du développement précoce. Ce modèle conceptualise la santé relationnelle au travers de l'écosystème servant l'enfant et peut servir de modèle pour la promotion du développement de l'enfant dans le contexte de l'adversité.

Age at Immigration and Depression: The Mediating Role of Contemporary Relationships With Adult Children Among Older Immigrants.

OBJECTIVES: For the growing population of older immigrants in the United States, both age at immigration and familial relationships are important factors affecting psychological well-being. This study explores how age at immigration and contemporary relationships with adult children combine to explain older immigrants' depressive symptoms. METHOD: This study uses 2014 Health and Retirement Study data from a sample of 759 immigrants aged 65 and older who have at least one adult child aged 21 or older. A series of ordinary least squares regressions and mediational analyses were conducted. RESULTS: Findings indicate that structural solidarity significantly mediates the association between age at immigration and depressive symptoms. Specifically, immigrating in later life was associated with a lower level of depressive symptoms through its relationship with structural solidarity. In addition, giving monetary support to children and providing care for grandchildren may alleviate depressive symptoms for older immigrants. DISCUSSION: This study suggests that relationships with adult children may differ with age at immigration. The types of support that older immigrants provide to their adult children may be crucial because such support may instill a sense of obligation and reciprocity that may be beneficial to the psychological well-being of older immigrants.

Historical Trends in Children Living in Multigenerational Households in the United States: 1870-2018.

Over the last two decades, the share of U.S. children under age 18 who live in a multigenerational household (with a grandparent and parent) has increased dramatically. Yet we do not know whether this increase is a recent phenomenon or a return to earlier levels of coresidence. Using data from the decennial census from 1870 to 2010 and the 2018 American Community Survey, we examine historical trends in children's multigenerational living arrangements, differences by race/ethnicity and education, and factors that explain the observed trends. We find that in 2018, 10% of U.S. children lived in a multigenerational household, a return to levels last observed in 1950. The current increase in multigenerational households began in 1980, when only 5% of children lived in such a household. Few differences in the prevalence of multigenerational coresidence by race/ethnicity or education existed in the early part of the twentieth century; racial/ethnic and education differences in coresidence are a more recent phenomena. Decomposition analyses do little to explain the decline in coresidence between 1940 and 1980, suggesting that unmeasured factors explain the decrease. Declines in marriage and in the share of White children most strongly explained the increase in multigenerational coresidence between 1980 and 2018. For White children with highly educated parents, factors explaining the increase in coresidence differ from other groups. Our findings suggest that the links between race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status and multigenerational coresidence have changed over time, and today the link between parental education and coresidence varies within racial/ethnic groups.

Beyond the Nuclear Family: Trends in Children Living in Shared Households.

Using data from the 1996-2008 panels of the Survey of Income and Program Participation and the 2009-2016 American Community Survey, we examine trends in U.S. children living in shared households (living with adults beyond their nuclear (parent/parent's partner/sibling) family). We find that although the share of children who lived in a shared household increased over this period, the rise was nearly entirely driven by an increase in three-generation/multigenerational households (coresident grandparent(s), parent(s), and child). In 1996, 5.7 % of children lived in a three-generation household; by 2016, 9.8 % did likewise-more than a 4 percentage point increase. More economically advantaged groups (older, more educated mothers, married households) experienced the largest percentage increase in three-generation coresidence, although correlates of coresidence remained largely stable. Decomposition analyses suggest that the rise in Social Security receipt and changes in parental relationship status (less marriage, more single parenthood) most strongly explained the increase in three-generation households. Given the dramatic rise in three-generation households, more research is needed to understand the consequences of these living arrangements for children, their parents, and their grandparents.

Assets among low-income families in the Great Recession.

This paper examines the association between the Great Recession and real assets among families with young children. Real assets such as homes and cars are key indicators of economic well-being that may be especially valuable to low-income families. Using longitudinal data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N = 4,898), we investigate the association between the city unemployment rate and home and car ownership and how the relationship varies by family structure (married, cohabiting, and single parents) and by race/ethnicity (White, Black, and Hispanic mothers). Using mother fixed-effects models, we find that a one percentage point increase in the unemployment rate is associated with a -0.5 percentage point decline in the probability of home ownership and a -0.7 percentage point decline in the probability of car ownership. We also find that the recession was associated with lower levels of home ownership for cohabiting families and for Hispanic families, as well as lower car ownership among single mothers and among Black mothers, whereas no change was observed among married families or White households. Considering that homes and cars are the most important assets among middle and low-income households in the U.S., these results suggest that the rise in the unemployment rate during the Great Recession may have increased household asset inequality across family structures and race/ethnicities, limiting economic mobility, and exacerbating the cycle of poverty.

Maternal employment stability in early childhood: Links with child behavior and cognitive skills.

Although many studies have investigated links between maternal employment and children's wellbeing, less research has considered whether the stability of maternal employment is linked with child outcomes. Using unique employment calendar data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N = 2,011), an urban birth cohort study of largely low-income families, this paper investigates whether the stability of maternal employment in early childhood (birth to age 5) is linked with child behavior and cognitive skills at ages 5 and 9. Employment stability (continuous employment over all 5 years, low levels of job churning, longer job tenure) was linked with less child externalizing behavior, but there was little evidence to suggest stability was particularly important for PPVT and Woodcock-Johnson scores. Rather, for PPVT and Woodcock-Johnson scores, an increase in maternal employment in early childhood more generally was associated with higher scores. (PsycINFO Database Record

Giving Unto Others: Private Financial Transfers and Hardship Among Families with Children.

Prior research shows that financial assistance from family and friends is an important source of support for families with children. However, research on financial transfers has largely focused on the recipients of transfers. In this study, using longitudinal data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (n~16,000 person-waves), we examine the association between the provision of financial assistance to family and friends and material hardship. Results from pooled regression and fixed effects models indicate that providing financial transfers is associated with an increased risk of hardship. The most economically disadvantaged groups, single mothers, those in the bottom income tertile, and black mothers, are the most likely to experience hardship after giving a transfer. These findings have important implications for understanding why families may have difficulty meeting basic and essential needs, and how social networks may exacerbate the challenges of escaping poverty and establishing economic self-sufficiency.

Understanding Grandfamilies: Characteristics of Grandparents, Nonresident Parents, and Children.

Using data from the Year 9 Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N~3,182), we investigated the characteristics grandfamilies (grandparents raising their grandchildren with no parent present, N = 84) and compared them to other key groups, including children's nonresident parents and other economically disadvantaged families with children. Results show that grandparents raising their grandchildren were generally better off in terms of educational attainment, marital status, and economic well-being than the child's parents. Grandparents raising their grandchildren also had very similar characteristics to other disadvantaged mothers. Academic and socioemotional well-being was poorer among children in grandfamilies compared with those living with their mothers, but parenting practices were very similar. These findings suggest that although children in grandfamilies may be at a disadvantage academically and socioemotionally, grandparent caregivers are in many ways similar to other fragile-family mothers. Overall, this study enhances our knowledge of an important, yet understudied family type.

Living with a grandparent and parent in early childhood: associations with school readiness and differences by demographic characteristics.

Despite the increasing prevalence of 3-generation family households (grandparent, parent, child), relatively little research has studied these households during early childhood. Using nationally representative data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort (N = ∼6,550), this study investigated the associations between 3-generation coresidence in early childhood and school readiness, and how the associations differed by maternal age, race/ethnicity, nativity, relationship status, and poverty. For the full sample of children, no associations between 3-generation coresidence and school readiness were found. Analyses by demographic characteristics found that race/ethnicity and nativity moderated the associations, whereas maternal age, relationship status, and poverty did not. The study found that 3-generation coresidence was associated with lower levels of expressive language for White, Asian, and Black children but more expressive language for Hispanic children. Coresidence was also associated with more externalizing behavior for White and American Indian/Alaskan Native children but less externalizing behavior for Hispanic and Black children. Analyses by maternal nativity found that for children of immigrant mothers, 3-generation coresidence was associated with more expressive language and less externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Interactions between race/ethnicity and nativity found that the positive associations for Hispanic children were concentrated among children of immigrant parents. No differences were found between grandmother-only and grandmother/grandfather 3-generation family households. Overall, the findings suggest there may be heterogeneity by race/ethnicity and nativity in the associations between 3-generation coresidence and school readiness.

Three-Generation Family Households in Early Childhood: Comparisons between the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia.

BACKGROUND: Shifting demographic trends in the United States (US) have resulted in increasing numbers of three-generation family households, where a child lives with a parent(s) and grandparent(s). Although similar demographic trends have been occurring in the United Kingdom (UK) and Australia, very little research has studied three-generation coresidence in these countries and no research has documented trends cross-nationally. OBJECTIVE: We investigate differences in the rates of three-generation coresidence in early childhood cross-nationally. METHOD: This study uses three longitudinal birth cohort studies: the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study - Birth Cohort for the US, the Millennium Cohort Study for the UK, and the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children - Birth Cohort to investigate cross-national differences three-generation coresidence in early childhood. RESULTS: We find that nearly one quarter of US children live in a three-generation household during early childhood, compared with 8% of children in the UK and 11% in Australia. Although there are large differences in the frequency of coresidence cross-nationally, we find that similar demographic groups live in three-generation households across contexts. In general, younger, less educated, lower income and minority mothers are more likely to live in three-generation households in all three countries.

The prevalence and economic value of doubling up.

"Doubling up" (living with relatives or nonkin) is a common source of support for low-income families, yet no study to date has estimated its economic value relative to other types of public and private support. Using longitudinal data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, we examine the prevalence and economic value of doubling up among families with young children living in large American cities. We find that doubling up is a very important part of the private safety net in the first few years of a child's life, with nearly 50 % of mothers reporting at least one instance of doubling up by the time their child is 9 years old. The estimated rental savings from doubling up is significant and comparable in magnitude to other public and private transfers.

Breastfeeding initiation and duration in coresident grandparent, mother and infant households.

In the US, the prevalence of three-generation households, where a grandparent, parent and child coreside, has increased in the last decade. Three-generation coresidence during infancy is particularly common and as many as 15 % of infants live in a three-generation household shortly after birth. Although prior research has linked family structure with breastfeeding behavior, no research has studied whether breastfeeding behavior varies by grandparent coresidence. This study is the first to investigate the association between three-generation coresidence and breastfeeding behaviors. This paper uses two data sets, the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study--Birth Cohort (n ~ 8,250), a nationally representative study of US children, and the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (n = 4,053), an urban sample of mostly low-income unmarried US mothers, to study the association between three-generation coresidence and breastfeeding initiation and duration using multivariate logistic regressions with extensive socio-demographic controls. Three-generation coresidence was associated with lower odds of breastfeeding initiation among the less advantaged mothers but not in the nationally representative sample of mothers. In comparison, three-generation coresidence was associated with lower odds of breastfeeding for 6 months or greater in both study samples. Three-generation coresidence may serve as a marker for differences in the likelihood of breastfeeding that can help inform public health strategies aimed at increasing breastfeeding rates. Research studying interventions with grandparents and the effects on breastfeeding behaviors may be a useful next step in public health promotion of breastfeeding.

Examining the antecedents of U.S. nonmarital fatherhood.

Despite the dramatic rise in U.S. nonmarital childbearing in recent decades, limited attention has been paid to factors affecting nonmarital fatherhood (beyond studies of young fathers). In this article, we use data from the 2002 National Survey of Family Growth and the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 cohort to examine the antecedents of nonmarital fatherhood, as compared to marital fatherhood. Overall, we find the strongest support across both data sets for education and race/ethnicity as key predictors of having a nonmarital first birth, consistent with prior literature about women's nonmarital childbearing and about men's early/teenage fatherhood. Education is inversely related to the risk of nonmarital fatherhood, and minority (especially black) men are much more likely to have a child outside of marriage than white men. We find little evidence that employment predicts nonmarital fertility, although it does strongly (and positively) predict marital fertility. High predicted earnings are also associated with a greater likelihood of marital childbearing but with a lower likelihood of nonmarital childbearing. Given the socioeconomic disadvantage associated with nonmarital fatherhood, this research suggests that nonmarital fatherhood may be an important aspect of growing U.S. inequality and stratification both within and across generations.

Maternal religious involvement and breastfeeding initiation and duration.

Although religious involvement is associated with a number of beneficial health outcomes, few studies have investigated whether religious involvement is associated with breastfeeding behaviors. Our analyses of 2 waves of data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (n = 4,166) indicate that mothers who frequently attend religious services are more likely to initiate breastfeeding than are mothers who never attend services. Understanding religious variations in breastfeeding may allow public health officials to more effectively target vulnerable populations.

Material Hardship and Child Socioemotional Behaviors: Differences by Types of Hardship, Timing, and Duration.

Child behavior problems are associated with long-term detrimental effects. A large body of literature looks at the association between income and child behavior but few studies examine this association with material hardship, an alternative economic indicator. We use data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study to examine the following questions: (a) Is material hardship associated with child socioemotional behavior and are there differences by developmental timing, (b) Are particular hardships (bills, utilities, food, housing, medical) more strongly associated with child behavior, and (c) Are there differences in the association between short-term and long-term material hardship and child behavior? We find that children in households experiencing material hardship score significantly higher on externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Additionally, we find that a mother's inability to pay bills, experience of utility interruption, and housing instability are adversely related to child behavior. We also find that the association between material hardship and child behaviors is stronger at age 5 and that chronic aggregate hardship has a stronger association with child behavior.

Three Generation Family Households: Differences by Family Structure at Birth.

Using data from the Fragile Families and Child Well-being Study (N=4,898), this study investigates how the share, correlates, transition patterns, and duration of three generation households vary by mother's relationship status at birth. Nine percent of married mothers, 17 % of cohabiting, and 45% of single mothers live in a three generation family household at the birth of the child. Incidence over time is much higher and most common among single mother households, 60% live in a three generation family household in at least one wave. Economic need, culture, and generational needs are associated with living in a three generation household and correlates vary by mother's relationship status. Three generation family households are short lived and transitions are frequent. Kin support through coresidence is an important source of support for families with young children and in particular families that are unwed at the birth of their child.

The Great Recession, Public Transfers, and Material Hardship.

Economic downturns lead to lost income and increased poverty. Although high unemployment almost certainly also increases material hardship, and government transfers likely decrease hardship, the first relationship has not yet been documented and the second is poorly understood. We use data from five waves of the Fragile Families and Child Well-being Study to study the relationships between unemployment, government transfers, and material hardship. The latest wave of data was collected during the Great Recession, the worst recession since the Great Depression, providing a unique opportunity to look at how high unemployment rates affect the well-being of low income families. We find that the unemployment rate is associated with increased overall material hardship, difficulty paying bills, having utilities disconnected, and with increased usage of TANF, SNAP, UI and Medicaid. If not for SNAP, food hardship might have increased by twice the amount actually observed.

"Couples as Partners and Parents over Children's Early Years"

We used data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study to examine how couple relationship quality and parental engagement are linked over children's early years-when they are infants, toddlers, and preschoolers. Our sample included 1,630 couples that were coresident over years 1 to 3 and 1,376 couples that were coresident over years 3 to 5 (1,196 over both periods). Overall, we found that better relationship quality predicted greater parental engagement for both mothers and fathers-especially in the infant to toddler years; in contrast, we found little evidence that parental engagement predicted future relationship quality. Married and cohabiting couples were generally similar in how relationship quality and parenting were linked.