LAMP2A regulates the loading of proteins into exosomes.

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles of endosomal origin that are released by practically all cell types across metazoans. Exosomes are active vehicles of intercellular communication and can transfer lipids, RNAs, and proteins between different cells, tissues, or organs. Here, we describe a mechanism whereby proteins containing a KFERQ motif pentapeptide are loaded into a subpopulation of exosomes in a process that is dependent on the membrane protein LAMP2A. Moreover, we demonstrate that this mechanism is independent of the ESCRT machinery but dependent on HSC70, CD63, Alix, Syntenin-1, Rab31, and ceramides. We show that the master regulator of hypoxia HIF1A is loaded into exosomes by this mechanism to transport hypoxia signaling to normoxic cells. In addition, by tagging fluorescent proteins with KFERQ-like sequences, we were able to follow the interorgan transfer of exosomes. Our findings open new avenues for exosome engineering by allowing the loading of bioactive proteins by tagging them with KFERQ-like motifs.

Usefulness of zebrafish larvae to evaluate drug-induced functional and morphological renal tubular alterations.

Prediction and management of drug-induced renal injury (DIRI) rely on the knowledge of the mechanisms of drug insult and on the availability of appropriate animal models to explore it. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) offers unique advantages for assessing DIRI because the larval pronephric kidney has a high homology with its human counterpart and it is fully mature at 3.5 days post-fertilization. Herein, we aimed to evaluate the usefulness of zebrafish larvae as a model of renal tubular toxicity through a comprehensive analysis of the renal alterations induced by the lethal concentrations for 10% of the larvae for gentamicin, paracetamol and tenofovir. We evaluated drug metabolic profile by mass spectrometry, renal function with the inulin clearance assay, the 3D morphology of the proximal convoluted tubule by two-photon microscopy and the ultrastructure of proximal convoluted tubule mitochondria by transmission electron microscopy. Paracetamol was metabolized by conjugation and oxidation with further detoxification with glutathione. Renal clearance was reduced with gentamicin and paracetamol. Proximal tubules were enlarged with paracetamol and tenofovir. All drugs induced mitochondrial alterations including dysmorphic shapes ("donuts", "pancakes" and "rods"), mitochondrial swelling, cristae disruption and/or loss of matrix granules. These results are in agreement with the tubular effects of gentamicin, paracetamol and tenofovir in man and demonstrate that zebrafish larvae might be a good model to assess functional and structural damage associated with DIRI.

Early steps in primary cilium assembly require EHD1/EHD3-dependent ciliary vesicle formation.

Membrane association with mother centriole (M-centriole) distal appendages is critical for ciliogenesis initiation. How the Rab GTPase Rab11-Rab8 cascade functions in early ciliary membrane assembly is unknown. Here, we show that the membrane shaping proteins EHD1 and EHD3, in association with the Rab11-Rab8 cascade, function in early ciliogenesis. EHD1 and EHD3 localize to preciliary membranes and the ciliary pocket. EHD-dependent membrane tubulation is essential for ciliary vesicle formation from smaller distal appendage vesicles (DAVs). Importantly, this step functions in M-centriole to basal body transformation and recruitment of transition zone proteins and IFT20. SNAP29, a SNARE membrane fusion regulator and EHD1-binding protein, is also required for DAV-mediated ciliary vesicle assembly. Interestingly, only after ciliary vesicle assembly is Rab8 activated for ciliary growth. Our studies uncover molecular mechanisms informing a previously uncharacterized ciliogenesis step, whereby EHD1 and EHD3 reorganize the M-centriole and associated DAVs before coordinated ciliary membrane and axoneme growth.

Left-right organizer flow dynamics: how much cilia activity reliably yields laterality?

Internal organs are asymmetrically positioned inside the body. Embryonic motile cilia play an essential role in this process by generating a directional fluid flow inside the vertebrate left-right organizer. Detailed characterization of how fluid flow dynamics modulates laterality is lacking. We used zebrafish genetics to experimentally generate a range of flow dynamics. By following the development of each embryo, we show that fluid flow in the left-right organizer is asymmetric and provides a good predictor of organ laterality. This was tested in mosaic organizers composed of motile and immotile cilia generated by dnah7 knockdowns. In parallel, we used simulations of fluid dynamics to analyze our experimental data. These revealed that fluid flow generated by 30 or more cilia predicts 90% situs solitus, similar to experimental observations. We conclude that cilia number, dorsal anterior motile cilia clustering, and left flow are critical to situs solitus via robust asymmetric charon expression.

Arl13b and the non-muscle myosin heavy chain IIA are required for circular dorsal ruffle formation and cell migration.

The Arf-like protein Arl13b has been implicated in ciliogenesis and Sonic hedgehog signaling. Furthermore, we have previously shown that it regulates endocytic recycling traffic and interacts with actin. Herein, we report that the non-muscle myosin heavy chain IIA, also known as Myh9, is an Arl13b effector. Moreover, we found that both proteins localized to circular dorsal ruffles (CDRs) induced by platelet-derived growth factor stimulation and are required for their formation. CDRs are ring-shaped actin-dependent structures formed on the dorsal cell surface and are involved in diverse processes, such as macropinocytosis, integrin recycling, internalization of receptor tyrosine kinases and cell migration. We found that Arl13b or Myh9 silencing impaired cell migration, suggesting that Arl13b is required for this function through the interaction with Myh9. Moreover, Arl13b silencing impaired neural crest cell migration in zebrafish embryos. Furthermore, we showed that Arl13b is required for the formation of CDRs in migrating cells. Thus, our results indicate a new role for Arl13b in actin cytoskeleton remodeling through the interaction with Myh9, by driving the formation of CDRs necessary for cell migration.