Multifunctional Block Copolymers, Acting as Recycling Aids, by Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization.

Block copolymers utilizing oligomeric poly(pentylene-co-hexylene carbonate)diol modified with 2,4-diisocyanatotoluene and further with 2-bromo-N-(3-hydroxypropyl)-2-methylpropanamide were synthesized and utilized as Activators ReGenerated by Electron Transfer Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization macroinitiators to obtain a first generation of multifunctional recycling additives with poly(glycidyl methacrylate-co-butyl methacrylate-co-methyl methacrylate) side chains, which could act as chain extenders. Then, chosen additive was reacted with a radical scavenger, 3,5-ditertbutyl-4-hydroxybenzoic acid (DHBA), to obtain a second generation of reactive additives. Those copolymers had different numbers of epoxy groups per polymer chain, and different number of epoxides opened with DHBA, hence showed a range of properties, and were utilized as reactive modifiers for polylactide (PLA) extrusion melting. The first-generation modifiers caused an increase in PLA's blends relative melt viscosity, stabilized material properties, and enhanced impact strength, while the second-generation modifiers with more than 8 % of epoxide ring opened showed worse properties. However, they managed to suppress the UV degradation of PLA blend plates.

Polytrimethylenimines: Highly Potent Antibacterial Agents with Activity and Toxicity Modulated by the Polymer Molecular Weight.

Cationic polymers have been extensively investigated as a potential replacement for traditional antibiotics. Here, we examined the effect of molecular weight (MW) on the antimicrobial, cytotoxic, and hemolytic activity of linear polytrimethylenimine (L-PTMI). The results indicate that the biological activity of the polymer sharply increases as MW increases. Thanks to a different position of the antibacterial activity and toxicity thresholds, tuning the MW of PTMI allows one to achieve a therapeutic window between antimicrobial activity and toxicity concentrations. L-PTMI presents significantly higher antimicrobial activity against model microorganisms than linear polyethylenimine (L-PEI) when polymers with a similar number of repeating units are compared. For the derivatives of L-PTMI and L-PEI, obtained through N-monomethylation and partial N,N-dimethylation of linear polyamines, the antimicrobial activity and toxicity were both reduced; however, resulting selectivity indices were higher. Selected materials were tested against clinical isolates of pathogens from the ESKAPE group and Mycobacteria, revealing good antibacterial properties of L-PTMI against antibiotic-resistant strains of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria but limited antibacterial properties against Mycobacteria.

Dual-Stimuli-Sensitive Smart Hydrogels Containing Magnetic Nanoparticles as Antitumor Local Drug Delivery Systems-Synthesis and Characterization.

The aim of this study was to develop an innovative, dual-stimuli-responsive smart hydrogel local drug delivery system (LDDS), potentially useful as an injectable simultaneous chemotherapy and magnetic hyperthermia (MHT) antitumor treatment device. The hydrogels were based on a biocompatible and biodegradable poly(ε-caprolactone-co-rac-lactide)-b-poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(ε-caprolactone-co-rac-lactide) (PCLA-PEG-PCLA, PCLA) triblock copolymer, synthesized via ring-opening polymerization (ROP) in the presence of a zirconium(IV) acetylacetonate (Zr(acac)4) catalyst. The PCLA copolymers were successfully synthesized and characterized using NMR and GPC techniques. Furthermore, the gel-forming and rheological properties of the resulting hydrogels were thoroughly investigated, and the optimal synthesis conditions were determined. The coprecipitation method was applied to create magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (MIONs) with a low diameter and a narrow size distribution. The magnetic properties of the MIONs were close to superparamagnetic upon TEM, DLS, and VSM analysis. The particle suspension placed in an alternating magnetic field (AMF) of the appropriate parameters showed a rapid increase in temperature to the values desired for hyperthermia. The MIONs/hydrogel matrices were evaluated for paclitaxel (PTX) release in vitro. The release was prolonged and well controlled, displaying close to zero-order kinetics; the drug release mechanism was found to be anomalous. Furthermore, it was found that the simulated hyperthermia conditions had no effect on the release kinetics. As a result, the synthesized smart hydrogels were discovered to be a promising antitumor LDDS, allowing simultaneous chemotherapy and hyperthermia treatment.

Recent Advances in the Application of ATRP in the Synthesis of Drug Delivery Systems.

Advances in atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) have enabled the precise design and preparation of nanostructured polymeric materials for a variety of biomedical applications. This paper briefly summarizes recent developments in the synthesis of bio-therapeutics for drug delivery based on linear and branched block copolymers and bioconjugates using ATRP, which have been tested in drug delivery systems (DDSs) over the past decade. An important trend is the rapid development of a number of smart DDSs that can release bioactive materials in response to certain external stimuli, either physical (e.g., light, ultrasound, or temperature) or chemical factors (e.g., changes in pH values and/or environmental redox potential). The use of ATRPs in the synthesis of polymeric bioconjugates containing drugs, proteins, and nucleic acids, as well as systems applied in combination therapies, has also received considerable attention.

Effects of Sterilization and Hydrolytic Degradation on the Structure, Morphology and Compressive Strength of Polylactide-Hydroxyapatite Composites.

Composites based on polylactide (PLA) and hydroxyapatite (HA) were prepared using a thermally induced phase separation method. In the experimental design, the PLA with low weight-average molar mass (Mw) and high Mw were tested with the inclusion of HA synthesized as whiskers or hexagonal rods. In addition, the structure of HA whiskers was doped with Zn, whereas hexagonal rods were mixed with Sr salt. The composites were sterilized and then incubated in phosphate-buffered saline for 12 weeks at 37 °C, followed by characterization of pore size distribution, molecular properties, density and mechanical strength. Results showed a substantial reduction of PLA Mw for both polymers due to the preparation of composites, their sterilization and incubation. The distribution of pore size effectively increased after the degradation process, whereas the sterilization, furthermore, had an impact on pore size distribution depending on HA added. The inclusion of HA reduced to some extent the degradation of PLA quantitatively in the weight loss in vitro compared to the control without HA. All produced materials showed no cytotoxicity when validated against L929 mouse skin fibroblasts and hFOB 1.19 human osteoblasts. The lack of cytotoxicity was accompanied by the immunocompatibility with human monocytic cells that were able to detect pyrogenic contaminants.

Synthesis of (Hyper)Branched Monohydroxyl Alkoxysilane Oligomers toward Silanized Urethane Prepolymers.

The aim of this work was the synthesis of (hyper)branched oligomers based on trialkoxysilane in various conditions and further application of them in order to modify the urethane prepolymers. Hydroxyl-terminated trialkoxysilane was used as a monomer for homo-condensation. It was obtained by reaction of 3-aminopropyl trialkoxysilane (APTES) with ethylene carbonate (EC). The reaction was based on the attack of amine at the carbonyl carbon atom followed by ring opening of the carbonate to give a urethane (carbamate) product. The next step was the condensation via substitution of ethoxy groups on silicon atom with the terminal hydroxyalkyl groups present in the primary product with the evolution of ethanol. Accordingly, the impact of temperature and type of catalyst on process efficiency was investigated. A quantitative analysis of reaction progress and products of the conversion of EC together with ethanol evolution was conducted by means of gas chromatography, which allowed us to determine the formation of monomeric product and, indirectly, of oligomeric products. It was found that at room temperature after 24 h, the majority of the monomeric product was isolated, whereas at elevated temperature in the presence of Ti-based catalyst, further condensation of the monomer into branched oligomers was preferred, and, moreover, the application of vacuum intensified that process. The obtained products were structurally characterized by 1H and 29Si NMR, MALDI-ToF and Gel Permeation Chromatography. Finally, two different alkoxysilane products, monomeric and oligomeric, were applied for modification of urethane prepolymer, forming silanized one (SPUR). The influence of the silanizing agent on the mechanical and thermal properties of the moisture-cured products was shown before and after additional conditioning in water.

Regeneration of Articular Cartilage Using Membranes of Polyester Scaffolds in a Rabbit Model.

One promising method for cartilage regeneration involves combining known methods, such as the microfracture technique with biomaterials, e.g., scaffolds (membranes). The most important feature of such implants is their appropriate rate of biodegradation, without the production of toxic metabolites. This study presents work on two different membranes made of polyester (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone-PLCA) named "PVP and "Z". The difference between them was the use of different pore precursors-polyvinylpyrrolidone in the "PVP" scaffold and gelatin in the "Z" scaffold. These were implemented in the articular cartilage defects of rabbit knee joints (defects were created for the purpose of the study). After 8, 16, and 24 weeks of observation, and the subsequent termination of the animals, histopathology and gel permeation chromatography (GPC) examinations were performed. Statistical analysis proved that the membranes support the regeneration process. GPC testing proved that the biodegradation process is progressing exponentially, causing the membranes to degrade at the appropriate time. The surgical technique we used meets all the requirements without causing the membrane to migrate after implantation. The "PVP" membrane is better due to the fact that after 24 weeks of observation there was a statistical trend for higher histological ratings. It is also better because it is easier to implant due to its lower fragility then membrane "Z". We conclude that the selected membranes seem to support the regeneration of articular cartilage in the rabbit model.

3D reactive inkjet printing of aliphatic polyureas using in-air coalescence technique.

An in-flight coalescence reactive inkjet printer has been developed to facilitate the in-air collision of two reactive microdroplets. This way precise volumes of reactive inks can be mixed and subsequently deposited on the substrate to produce the desired product by polymer synthesis and patterning in a single step. In this work, we validate the printer capabilities by fabrication of a series of 3D structures using an aliphatic polyurea system (isophorone diisocyanate IPDI and poly(propylene glycol) bis(2-aminopropyl ether) PEA-400). The influence of temperature and ink ratio on the material properties has been investigated. An increase in both IPDI and temperature facilitates the production of materials with higher Young's Modulus E and higher ultimate strength U. The possibility of printing different materials i.e. ductile (U = 2 MPa, ε B = 450%), quasi-brittle (U = 14 MPa, ε B = 350%), and brittle (U = 10 MPa, ε B = 11%) by varying the printing process parameters using one set of inks has been presented. The anisotropy of the material properties arising from different printing directions is at the 20% level.

A Comprehensive Investigation of the Structural, Thermal, and Biological Properties of Fully Randomized Biomedical Polyesters Synthesized with a Nontoxic Bismuth(III) Catalyst.

Aliphatic polyesters are the most common type of biodegradable synthetic polymer used in many pharmaceutical applications nowadays. This report describes the ring-opening polymerization (ROP) of l-lactide (L-LA), ε-caprolactone (CL) and glycolide (Gly) in the presence of a simple, inexpensive and convenient PEG200-BiOct3 catalytic system. The chemical structures of the obtained copolymers were characterized by 1H- or 13C-NMR. GPC was used to estimate the average molecular weight of the resulting polyesters, whereas TGA and DSC were employed to determine the thermal properties of polymeric products. The effects of temperature, reaction time, and catalyst content on the polymerization process were investigated. Importantly, the obtained polyesters were not cyto- or genotoxic, which is significant in terms of the potential for medical applications (e.g., for drug delivery systems). As a result of transesterification, the copolymers obtained had a random distribution of comonomer units along the polymer chain. The thermal analysis indicated an amorphous nature of poly(l-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) (PLACL) and a low degree of crystallinity of poly(ε-caprolactone-co-glycolide) (PCLGA, Xc = 15.1%), in accordance with the microstructures with random distributions and short sequences of comonomer units (l = 1.02-2.82). Significant differences in reactivity were observed among comonomers, confirming preferential ring opening of L-LA during the copolymerization process.

Grafted Lactic Acid Oligomers on Lignocellulosic Filler towards Biocomposites.

Lactic acid oligomers (OLAs) were in situ synthesized from lactic acid (LAc) and grafted onto chokeberry pomace (CP) particleboards by direct condensation. Biocomposites of poly (lactic acid) (PLA) and modified/unmodified CP particles containing different size fractions were obtained using a mini-extruder. To confirm the results of the grafting process, the FTIR spectra of filler particles were obtained. Performing 1HNMR spectroscopy allowed us to determine the chemical structure of synthesized OLAs. The thermal degradation of modified CP and biocomposites were studied using TGA, and the thermal characteristics of biocomposites were investigated using DSC. In order to analyse the adhesion between filler particles and PLA in biocomposites, SEM images of brittle fracture surfaces were registered. The mechanical properties of biocomposites were studied using a tensile testing machine. FTIR and 1HNMR analysis confirmed the successful grafting process of OLAs. The modified filler particles exhibited a better connection with hydrophobic PLA matrix alongside improved mechanical properties than the biocomposites with unmodified filler particles. Moreover, a DSC analysis of the biocomposites with modified CP showed a reduction in glass temperature on average by 9 °C compared to neat PLA. It confirms the plasticizing effect of grafted and ungrafted OLAs. The results are promising, and can contribute to increasing the use of agri-food lignocellulosic residue in manufacturing biodegradable packaging.

Synthesis and Characterization of New Biodegradable Injectable Thermosensitive Smart Hydrogels for 5-Fluorouracil Delivery.

In this paper, injectable, thermosensitive smart hydrogel local drug delivery systems (LDDSs) releasing the model antitumour drug 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) were developed. The systems were based on biodegradable triblock copolymers synthesized via ring opening polymerization (ROP) of ε-caprolactone (CL) in the presence of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) and zirconium(IV) acetylacetonate (Zr(acac)4), as co-initiator and catalyst, respectively. The structure, molecular weight (Mn) and molecular weight distribution (D) of the synthesized materials was studied in detail using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and gel permeation chromatography (GPC) techniques; the optimal synthesis conditions were determined. The structure corresponded well to the theoretical assumptions. The produced hydrogels demonstrated a sharp sol-gel transition at temperature close to physiological value, forming a stable gel with good mechanical properties at 37 °C. The kinetics and mechanism of in vitro 5-FU release were characterized by zero order, first order, Higuchi and Korsmeyer-Peppas mathematical models. The obtained results indicate good release control; the kinetics were generally defined as first order according to the predominant diffusion mechanism; and the total drug release time was approximately 12 h. The copolymers were considered to be biodegradable and non-toxic; the resulting hydrogels appear to be promising as short-term LDDSs, potentially useful in antitumor therapy.

Graphene Infused Ecological Polymer Composites for Electromagnetic Interference Shielding and Heat Management Applications.

In the age of mobile electronics and increased aerospace interest, multifunctional materials such as the polymer composites reported here are interesting alternatives to conventional materials, offering reduced cost and size of an electrical device packaging. We report a detailed study of an ecological and dual-functional polymer composite for electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding and heat management applications. We studied a series of polylactic acid/graphene nanoplatelet composites with six graphene nanoplatelet loadings, up to 15 wt%, and three different flake lateral sizes (0.2, 5 and 25 µm). The multifunctionality of the composites is realized via high EMI shielding efficiency exceeding 40 dB per 1 mm thick sample and thermal conductivity of 1.72 W/mK at 15 wt% nanofiller loading. The EMI shielding efficiency measurements were conducted in the microwave range between 0.2 to 12 GHz, consisting of the highly relevant X-band (8-12 GHz). Additionally, we investigate the influence of the nanofiller lateral size on the studied physical properties to optimize the studied functionalities per given nanofiller loading.

1D and 2D hybrid polymers based on zinc phenylphosphates: synthesis, characterization and applications in electroactive materials.

The synthesis, structure and properties of three hybrid polymers based on zinc arylphosphates are described in this study. Zinc bis(diphenylphosphate) (ZnDPhP) was obtained as needle-like crystals containing hexagonally packed, homochiral 1 ∞[Zn(DPhP)2/2] helical chains. The XRD and DSC studies revealed that upon heating, ZnDPhP undergoes a reversible thermal transition at ca. 160 °C with expansion mainly perpendicular to its c-axis. Zinc phenylphosphate hydrate (ZnMPhP-H) formed plate-like particles with an average thickness of less than 1 µm and much thinner nanolayers with a basal spacing of 15.5 Å. ZnMPhP-H was easily and reversibly dehydrated to its anhydrous form, ZnMPhP-A, which exhibited a somewhat larger basal spacing of 16.5 Å and the capacity for amine intercalation. The thermal decomposition of ZnDPhP or ZnMPhP-A began around 250 °C, resulting in the formation of solid mixtures of zinc phosphates and electron-conducting carbonaceous phases. The bulk electrical conductivities of the poly(vinylidene fluoride)-based composites containing the ZnDPhP pyrolyzates reached 0.1-0.2 S cm-1. Upon mixing with silicone oil, all the synthesized hybrid polymers formed fluids that exhibit significant negative electrorheological effects and have potential for application in electroresponsive smart materials. The application of an electric field during the crosslinking of such systems affected the viscoelastic properties of the resultant solid composites, while the cured systems showed rather small electrorheological effects.

Effect of Electron-Beam Radiation and Other Sterilization Techniques on Structural, Mechanical and Microbiological Properties of Thermoplastic Starch Blend.

This work investigates the potential application of various sterilization methods for microorganism inactivation on the thermoplastic starch blend surface. The influence of the e-beam and UV radiation, ethanol, isopropanol and microwave autoclave on structural and packaging properties were studied. All the applied methods were successful in the inactivation of yeast and molds, however only the e-beam radiation was able to remove the bacterial microflora. The FTIR analysis revealed no significant changes in the polymer structure, nevertheless, a deterioration of the mechanical properties of the blend was observed. The least invasive method was the UV radiation which did not affect the mechanical parameters and additionally improved the barrier properties of the tested material. Moreover, it was proved that during the e-beam radiation the chain scission and cross-linking occurred. The non-irradiated and irradiated samples were subjected to the enzymatic degradation studies performed in the presence of amylase. The results indicated that irradiation accelerated the decomposition of material, which was confirmed by the measurements of weight loss, and mass of glucose and starch released to the solution in the course of biodegradation, as well as the FTIR and thermal analysis.

Lastingly Colored Polylactide Synthesized by Dye-Initiated Polymerization.

An efficient synthesis strategy of a well-defined polylactide-dye conjugate in a controlled fashion is presented. The introduction of coloring species as end groups of polylactide (PLA) has been performed by using new homoleptic aminophenolate magnesium or zinc coordination compounds. The molecular structure of metal complexes has been determined in solution by NMR spectroscopy, and in the solid state by X-ray analysis. Lastingly colored polymers were obtained with 2-[4-(Nitrophenylazo)-N-ethylphenylamino]ethanol (Disperse Red 1) and 2-[4-(2-Chloro-4-nitrophenylazo)-N-ethylphenylamino]ethanol (Disperse Red 13) at very high lactide conversions, based on MALDI-ToF measurement, and the macromolecules were nearly fully chain end dye-functionalized. Based on 1H NMR, the DPn of conjugates was in the range of 10-300, which was consistent with the reaction setup. Various methods of gel-permeation chromatography (GPC) analysis were applied, and they demonstrated that the number-average molar mass (Mn) values (polystyrene (PS) standards) were a bit higher than calculated, the molar mass distribution index (ƉM) values were moderate to high, the TDA (triple detection array) system was inappropriate for analysis, measurements with PDA (photo diode array) detection at 470 nm gave nearly the same molar mass distributions such as the refractometer, and the relative absorbance of conjugates at 470 nm increased linearly versus (DPn)-1. The presented approach connects the gap between the current strategy of obtaining colored polymer fibers and the design of tailor-made initiators with eco polyesters designed for the targeted applications.

Effect of structural factors on release profiles of camptothecin from block copolymer conjugates with high load of drug.

The aim of the present work was the synthesis and study the kinetics and profiles of camptothecin (CPT) release form block co- and ter-polymer conjugates comprising polylactide (PLA) segments and CPT moieties, structurally diverse by degrees of branching, content of d-PLA units and poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate (PEGMA). Six PLA, non-toxic macroinitiators (MIs), terminated with α-bromoester were synthesized. MIs were subjected to polymerization of CPT methacrylic derivative (CPTMA) with PEGMA at various ratios. The average contents of CPT from elemental analysis, NMR and UV-GPC were approximate to each other. The number of CPT molecules and PEGMA units was in the range of 9-195 and 0-280 per conjugate, respectively. PEGMA units plasticized PLA causing increase of its crystallinity, whereas 7% and more of d-PLA caused material amorphous. PEGMA units decreased thermal stability of conjugates, however it compatibillized the separated phases of PLA and PCPTMA, based on AFM. In vitro release rate of CPT from linear PLA conjugates deposited on injection-molded PLA bars increased by introduction of PEGMA units with zero-order kinetics and Korsmeyer-Peppas model indicating the super case II transport. Branched conjugates revealed some burst release and then the release was rather of first-order-kinetics with respect to CPT with non-Fickian transport.

Polylactide conjugates of camptothecin with different drug release abilities.

Camptothecin-polylactide conjugates (CMPT-PLA) were synthesized by covalent incorporation of CMPT into PLA of different microstructure, i.e., atactic PLA and atactic-block-isotactically enriched PLA (Pm = 0.79) via urethane bonds. The kinetic release of CPMT from CMPT-PLA conjugates, tested in vitro under different conditions, is possible in both cases and notably, strongly dependent on PLA microstructure. It shows that release properties of drug-PLA conjugates can be tailored by controlled design of the PLA microstructure, and allow in the case of CMPT-PLA conjugates for the development of highly controlled biodegradable CMPT systems-important delivery systems for anti-cancer agents.