Cognitive Effects of Three ß-Adrenoceptor Acting Drugs in Healthy Volunteers and Patients with Parkinson's Disease.

Background: Noradrenergic signaling declines in Parkinson's disease (PD) following locus coeruleus neurodegeneration. Epidemiologic studies demonstrate that ß-acting drugs slow PD progression. Objective: The primary objective was to compare the safety and effects of 3 ß-adrenoceptor (ß-AR) acting drugs on central nervous system (CNS) function after a single dose in healthy volunteers (HVs) and evaluate the effects of multiple doses of ß-AR acting drugs in HVs and PD-patients. Methods: In Part A, HVs received single doses of 32 mg salbutamol, 160µg clenbuterol, 60 mg pindolol and placebo administered in a randomized, 4-way cross-over study. In Part B (randomized cross-over) and Part C (parallel, 2:1 randomized), placebo and/or clenbuterol (20µg on Day 1, 40µg on Day 2, 80µg on Days 3-7) were administered. CNS functions were assessed using the NeuroCart test battery, including pupillometry, adaptive tracking and recall tests. Results: Twenty-seven HVs and 12 PD-patients completed the study. Clenbuterol improved and pindolol reduced the adaptive tracking and immediate verbal recall performance. Clenbuterol and salbutamol increased and pindolol decreased pupil-to-iris ratios. Clenbuterol was selected for Parts B and C. In Part B, clenbuterol significantly increased performance in adaptive tracking with a tendency toward improved performance in immediate and delayed verbal recall. In Part C trends toward improved performance in immediate and delayed verbal recall were observed in PD-patients. Typical cardiovascular peripheral ß2-AR effects were observed with clenbuterol. Conclusions: This study demonstrates the pro-cognitive effects of clenbuterol in HVs with similar trends in PD-patients. The mechanism of action is likely activation of ß2-ARs in the CNS.

Aims and Purpose of the Research:This research aimed to explore how three different drugs affect brain function. These drugs are salbutamol, clenbuterol, and pindolol and work in the brain by stimulating specific brain cells that can improve aspects like memory and coordination. The main question was to see how safe these drugs were and how they impact the brain function after one dose in healthy people, and after multiple doses in both healthy people and those with Parkinson's disease.Background of the Research:Parkinson's disease is a condition where brain cells start to die, which affects different areas of the brain, including movement function, as well as memory and attention. This research matters because finding drugs that affect the brain function could improve the lives of people with Parkinson's disease.Methods and Research Design:The study was conducted in three parts. In the first part, healthy volunteers took one dose of each of the three drugs­ salbutamol, clenbuterol, and pindolol­ as well as a placebo (a harmless pill that has no effect). The researchers tested the participants' brain functions using various tasks including memory tests and eye response measurements. In the second and third part, healthy people and people with Parkinson's disease took the drug that performed best in healthy volunteers for seven days.Results and Importance:In the first part, a single dose of clenbuterol was safe and improved memory and attentions tasks in healthy people, and therefore was chosen for further testing in the second and third part. In these parts, multiple doses of clenbuterol were safe and helped improve memory and attention tasks in healthy people, with similar positive trends seen in people with Parkinson's disease. The study suggests that clenbuterol might help improve brain function by activating specific receptors in the brain.These results are important because they suggest that clenbuterol could be a potential treatment to help improve brain function in people with Parkinson's disease. However, more research is needed to fully understand its effects and to confirm these findings.

Disease modification in chronic spontaneous urticaria.

Chronic spontaneous urticaria (CSU) is a debilitating, inflammatory skin condition characterized by infiltrating immune cells. Available treatments are limited to improving the signs and symptoms. There is an unmet need to develop therapies that target disease-driving pathways upstream of mast cell activation to inhibit or delay the progression of CSU and associated comorbidities. Here, we aim to define disease modification due to a treatment intervention and criteria that disease-modifying treatments (DMTs) must meet in CSU. We have defined disease modification in CSU as a favorable treatment-induced change in the underlying pathophysiology and, therefore, the disease course, which is clinically beneficial and enduring. A DMT must fulfil the following criteria: (1) prevents or delays the progression of CSU, (2) induces long-term, therapy-free clinical remission, which is the sustained absence of CSU signs and symptoms without the need for treatment, and (3) affects the underlying mechanism of CSU, as demonstrated by an effect on disease-driving signals and/or a biomarker. DMTs in CSU should slow disease progression, achieve long-lasting disease remission, target disease-driving mechanisms, reduce mast cell-activating IgE autoantibodies, target cytokine profile polarization, and normalize the gut microbiome and barrier. Treating CSU at the immune system level could provide valuable alternatives to pharmacotherapy in CSU management. Specific DMTs in CSU are yet to be developed, but some show potential benefits, such as inhibitors of Bruton's Tyrosine Kinase, IL-4 and IL-13. Future therapies could prevent CSU signs and symptoms, achieve long-term clinical benefits after discontinuing treatment, and prevent associated concomitant disorders.

Cognitive performance in healthy clinical trial participants and patients with the NeuroCart, a neurodegenerative disease measured with an automated neuropsychological and neurophysiological test battery.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of neurodegenerative diseases increases significantly with increasing age. Neurodegeneration is the progressive loss of function of neurons that eventually leads to cell death, which in turn leads to cognitive disfunction. Cognitive performance can therefore also be considered age dependent. The current study investigated if the NeuroCart can detect age related decline on drug-sensitive CNS-tests in healthy volunteers (HV), and whether there are interactions between the rates of decline and sex. This study also investigated if the NeuroCart was able to differentiate disease profiles of neurodegenerative diseases, compared to age-matched HV and if there is age related decline in patient groups. METHODS: This retrospective study encompassed 93 studies, performed at CHDR between 2005 and 2020 that included NeuroCart measurements, which resulted in data from 2729 subjects. Five NeuroCart tests were included in this analysis: smooth and saccadic eye movements, body sway, adaptive tracking, VVLT and N-back. Data from 84 healthy male and female volunteer studies, aged 16-90, were included. Nine studies were performed in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD) or vascular dementia (VaD). The data were analyzed with regression analyses on age by group, sex, sex by age, group by sex and group by sex by age. Least square means (LSMs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated for each group at the average age of the group, and at the average age of each of the other groups, and per sex. RESULTS: Mean age and standard deviation (SD) for all groups was: HV 36.2 years (19.3), 68.3 CE years (8), PD 62.7 years (8.5), HD 51.4 years (9.8) and VaD 66.9 years (8.1). Performance on all NeuroCart tests decreased significantly each year in HV. Saccadic peak velocity (SPV) was increased in AD compared to age-matched HV (+26.28 degrees/s, p = 0.007), while SPV was decreased for PD and HD compared to age-matched HV (PD: -15.87 degrees/s, p = 0.038, HD: -22.52 degrees/s, p = 0.018). In HD patients SPV decreased faster with age compared to HV. On saccadic peak velocity the slopes between HD vs HV were significantly different, indicating a faster decline in performance on this task for HD patients compared to HV per age year. Smooth pursuit showed an overall significant difference between subject groups (p = 0.037. Significantly worse performance was found for AD (-12.87%, p ≤0.001), PD (-4.45%, p ≤0.001) and VaD (-5.69%, p = 0.005) compared to age-matched HV. Body sway significantly increased with age (p = 0.021). Postural stability was decreased for both PD and HD compared to age-matched HV (PD: +38.8%, p ≤0.001, HD: 154.9%, p ≤0.001). The adaptive tracking was significantly decreased with age (p ≤0.001). Adaptive tracking performance by AD (-7.54%, p ≤0.001), PD (-8.09%, p ≤0.001), HD (-5.19%, p ≤0.001) and VaD (-5.80%, p ≤0.001) was decreased compared to age-matched HV. Adaptive tracking in PD patients vs HV and in PD vs HD patients was significantly different, indicating a faster decline on this task per age year for PD patients compared to HV and HD. The VVLT delayed word recall showed an overall significant effect of subject group (p = 0.006. Correct delayed word recall was decreased for AD (-5.83 words, p ≤0.001), HD (-3.40 words, p ≤0.001) and VaD (-5.51 words, p ≤0.001) compared to age-matched HV. CONCLUSION: This study showed that the NeuroCart can detect age-related decreases in performance in HV, which were not affected by sex. The NeuroCart was able to detect significant differences in performance between AD, PD, HD, VaD and age-matched HV. Disease durations were unknown, therefore this cross-sectional study was not able to show age-related decline after disease onset. This article shows the importance of investigating age-related decline on digitalized neurocognitive test batteries. Performance declines with age, which emphasizes the need to correct for age when including HV in clinical trials. Patients with different neurogenerative diseases have distinct performance patterns on the NeuroCart, which this should be considered when performing NeuroCart tasks in patients with AD, PD, HD and VaD.

Inflammatory plasma biomarkers in subjects with preclinical Alzheimer's disease.

BACKGROUND: This study investigated plasma biomarkers for neuroinflammation associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD) in subjects with preclinical AD compared to healthy elderly. How these biomarkers behave in patients with AD, compared to healthy elderly is well known, but determining these in subjects with preclinical AD is not and will add information related to the onset of AD. When found to be different in preclinical AD, these inflammatory biomarkers may be used to select preclinical AD subjects who are most likely to develop AD, to participate in clinical trials with new disease-modifying drugs. METHODS: Healthy elderly (n= 50; age 71.9; MMSE >24) and subjects with preclinical AD (n=50; age 73.4; MMSE >24) defined by CSF Aß1-42 levels < 1000 pg/mL were included. Four neuroinflammatory biomarkers were determined in plasma, GFAP, YKL-40, MCP-1, and eotaxin-1. Differences in biomarker outcomes were compared using ANCOVA. Subject characteristics age, gender, and APOE ε4 status were reported per group and were covariates in the ANCOVA. Least square means were calculated for all 4 inflammatory biomarkers using both the Aß+/Aß- cutoff and Ptau/Aß1-42 ratio. RESULTS: The mean (standard deviation, SD) age of the subjects (n=100) was 72.6 (4.6) years old with 62 male and 38 female subjects. Mean (SD) overall MMSE score was 28.7 (0.49) and 32 subjects were APOE ε4 carriers. The number of subjects in the different APOE ε4 status categories differed significantly between the Aß+ and Aß- groups. Plasma GFAP concentration was significantly higher in the Aß+ group compared to the Aß- group with significant covariates age and sex, variables that also correlated significantly with GFAP. CONCLUSION: GFAP was significantly higher in subjects with preclinical AD compared to healthy elderly which agrees with previous studies. When defining preclinical AD based on the Ptau181/Aß1-42 ratio, YKL-40 was also significantly different between groups. This could indicate that GFAP and YKL-40 are more sensitive markers of the inflammatory process in response to the Aß misfolding and aggregation that is ongoing as indicated by the lowered Aß1-42 levels in the CSF. Characterizing subjects with preclinical AD using neuroinflammatory biomarkers is important for subject selection in new disease-modifying clinical trials. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN.org identifier: ISRCTN79036545 (retrospectively registered).

Detection of Clenbuterol-Induced Changes in Heart Rate Using At-Home Recorded Smartwatch Data: Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Although electrocardiography is the gold standard for heart rate (HR) recording in clinical trials, the increasing availability of smartwatch-based HR monitors opens up possibilities for drug development studies. Smartwatches allow for inexpensive, unobtrusive, and continuous HR estimation for potential detection of treatment effects outside the clinic, during daily life. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study is to evaluate the repeatability and sensitivity of smartwatch-based HR estimates collected during a randomized clinical trial. METHODS: The data were collected as part of a multiple-dose, investigator-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study of 12 patients with Parkinson disease. After a 6-day baseline period, 4 and 8 patients were treated for 7 days with an ascending dose of placebo and clenbuterol, respectively. Throughout the study, the smartwatch provided HR and sleep state estimates. The HR estimates were quantified as the 2.5th, 50th, and 97.5th percentiles within awake and asleep segments. Linear mixed models were used to calculate the following: (1) the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) of estimated sleep durations, (2) the ICC and minimum detectable effect (MDE) of the HR estimates, and (3) the effect sizes of the HR estimates. RESULTS: Sleep duration was moderately repeatable (ICC=0.64) and was not significantly affected by study day (P=.83), clenbuterol (P=.43), and study day by clenbuterol (P=.73). Clenbuterol-induced changes were detected in the asleep HR as of the first night (+3.79 beats per minute [bpm], P=.04) and in the awake HR as of the third day (+8.79 bpm, P=.001). The median HR while asleep had the highest repeatability (ICC=0.70). The MDE (N=12) was found to be smaller when patients were asleep (6.8 bpm to 11.7 bpm) than while awake (10.7 bpm to 22.1 bpm). Overall, the effect sizes for clenbuterol-induced changes were higher while asleep (0.49 to 2.75) than while awake (0.08 to 1.94). CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrated the feasibility of using smartwatch-based HR estimates to detect clenbuterol-induced changes during clinical trials. The asleep HR estimates were most repeatable and sensitive to treatment effects. We conclude that smartwatch-based HR estimates obtained during daily living in a clinical trial can be used to detect and track treatment effects. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Netherlands Trials Register NL8002; https://www.trialregister.nl/trial/8002.

A cross-sectional study in healthy elderly subjects aimed at development of an algorithm to increase identification of Alzheimer pathology for the purpose of clinical trial participation.

BACKGROUND: In the current study, we aimed to develop an algorithm based on biomarkers obtained through non- or minimally invasive procedures to identify healthy elderly subjects who have an increased risk of abnormal cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) amyloid beta42 (Aß) levels consistent with the presence of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology. The use of the algorithm may help to identify subjects with preclinical AD who are eligible for potential participation in trials with disease modifying compounds being developed for AD. Due to this pre-selection, fewer lumbar punctures will be needed, decreasing overall burden for study subjects and costs. METHODS: Healthy elderly subjects (n = 200; age 65-70 (N = 100) and age > 70 (N = 100)) with an MMSE > 24 were recruited. An automated central nervous system test battery was used for cognitive profiling. CSF Aß1-42 concentrations, plasma Aß1-40, Aß1-42, neurofilament light, and total Tau concentrations were measured. Aß1-42/1-40 ratio was calculated for plasma. The neuroinflammation biomarker YKL-40 and APOE ε4 status were determined in plasma. Different mathematical models were evaluated on their sensitivity, specificity, and positive predictive value. A logistic regression algorithm described the data best. Data were analyzed using a 5-fold cross validation logistic regression classifier. RESULTS: Two hundred healthy elderly subjects were enrolled in this study. Data of 154 subjects were used for the per protocol analysis. The average age of the 154 subjects was 72.1 (65-86) years. Twenty-four (27.3%) were Aß positive for AD (age 65-83). The results of the logistic regression classifier showed that predictive features for Aß positivity/negativity in CSF consist of sex, 7 CNS tests, and 1 plasma-based assay. The model achieved a sensitivity of 70.82% (± 4.35) and a specificity of 89.25% (± 4.35) with respect to identifying abnormal CSF in healthy elderly subjects. The receiver operating characteristic curve showed an AUC of 65% (± 0.10). CONCLUSION: This algorithm would allow for a 70% reduction of lumbar punctures needed to identify subjects with abnormal CSF Aß levels consistent with AD. The use of this algorithm can be expected to lower overall subject burden and costs of identifying subjects with preclinical AD and therefore of total study costs. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN.org identifier: ISRCTN79036545 (retrospectively registered).

Safety, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of HTL0009936, a selective muscarinic M1 -acetylcholine receptor agonist: A randomized cross-over trial.

AIMS: HTL0009936 is a selective M1 muscarinic receptor agonist in development for cognitive dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease. Safety, tolerability and pharmacokinetics and exploratory pharmacodynamic effects of HTL0009936 administered by continuous IV infusion at steady state were investigated in elderly subjects with below average cognitive functioning (BACF). METHODS: Part A was a four-treatment open label sequential study in healthy elderly investigating 10-83 mg HTL0009936 (IV) and a 24 mg HTL0009936 single oral dose. Part B was a five-treatment randomized, double-blind, placebo and physostigmine controlled cross-over study with IV HTL0009936 in elderly subjects with BACF. Pharmacodynamic assessments were performed using neurocognitive and electrophysiological tests. RESULTS: Pharmacokinetics of HTL0009936 showed dose-proportional increases in exposure with a mean half-life of 2.4 hours. HTL0009936 was well-tolerated with transient dose-related adverse events (AEs). Small increases in mean systolic blood pressure of 7.12 mmHg (95% CI [3.99-10.24]) and in diastolic of 5.32 mmHg (95% CI [3.18-7.47]) were noted at the highest dose in part B. Overall, there was suggestive, but no definitive, positive or negative pharmacodynamic effects. Statistically significant effects were observed on P300 with HTL0009936 and adaptive tracking with physostigmine. CONCLUSIONS: HTL0009936 showed well-characterized pharmacokinetics and single doses were safe and generally well-tolerated in healthy elderly subjects. Due to physostigmine tolerability issues and subject burden, the study design was changed and some pharmacodynamic assessments (neurocognitive) were performed at suboptimal drug exposures. Therefore no clear conclusions can be made on pharmacodynamic effects of HTL0009936, although an effect on P300 is suggestive of central target engagement.

First-in-man study to investigate safety, pharmacokinetics and exploratory pharmacodynamics of HTL0018318, a novel M1 -receptor partial agonist for the treatment of dementias.

AIMS: HTL0018318 is a selective M1 receptor partial agonist currently under development for the symptomatic treatment of cognitive and behavioural symptoms in Alzheimer's disease and other dementias. We investigated safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics and exploratory pharmacodynamics (PD) of HTL0018318 following single ascending doses. METHODS: This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study in 40 healthy younger adult and 57 healthy elderly subjects, investigated oral doses of 1-35 mg HTL0018318. Pharmacodynamic assessments were performed using a battery of neurocognitive tasks and electrophysiological measurements. Cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of HTL0018318 and food effects on pharmacokinetics of HTL0018318 were investigated in an open label and partial cross-over design in 14 healthy subjects. RESULTS: Pharmacokinetics of HTL0018318 were well-characterized showing dose proportional increases in exposure from 1-35 mg. Single doses of HTL0018318 were associated with mild dose-related adverse events of low incidence in both younger adult and elderly subjects. The most frequently reported cholinergic AEs included hyperhidrosis and increases in blood pressure up to 10.3 mmHg in younger adults (95% CI [4.2-16.3], 35-mg dose) and up to 11.9 mmHg in elderly subjects (95% CI [4.9-18.9], 15-mg dose). There were no statistically significant effects on cognitive function but the study was not powered to detect small to moderate effect sizes of clinical relevance. CONCLUSION: HTL0018318 showed well-characterized pharmacokinetics and following single doses were generally well tolerated in the dose range studied. These provide encouraging data in support of the development for HTL0018318 for Alzheimer's disease and other dementias.

Utility of Animal Models to Understand Human Alzheimer's Disease, Using the Mastermind Research Approach to Avoid Unnecessary Further Sacrifices of Animals.

To diagnose and treat early-stage (preclinical) Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients, we need body-fluid-based biomarkers that reflect the processes that occur in this stage, but current knowledge on associated processes is lacking. As human studies on (possible) onset and early-stage AD would be extremely expensive and time-consuming, we investigate the potential value of animal AD models to help to fill this knowledge gap. We provide a comprehensive overview of processes associated with AD pathogenesis and biomarkers, current knowledge on AD-related biomarkers derived from on human and animal brains and body fluids, comparisons of biomarkers obtained in human AD and frequently used animal AD models, and emerging body-fluid-based biomarkers. In human studies, amyloid beta (Aß), hyperphosphorylated tau (P-tau), total tau (T-tau), neurogranin, SNAP-25, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), YKL-40, and especially neurofilament light (NfL) are frequently measured. In animal studies, the emphasis has been mostly on Aß. Although a direct comparison between human (familial and sporadic) AD and (mostly genetic) animal AD models cannot be made, still, in brain, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and blood, a majority of similar trends are observed for human AD stage and animal AD model life stage. This indicates the potential value of animal AD models in understanding of the onset and early stage of AD. Moreover, animal studies can be smartly designed to provide mechanistic information on the interrelationships between the different AD processes in a longitudinal fashion and may also include the combinations of different conditions that may reflect comorbidities in human AD, according to the Mastermind Research approach.

A Validated Novel Tool for Capturing Faculty-Student Joint Behaviors with the COPUS Instrument.

The Classroom Observation Protocol Undergraduate STEM (COPUS) tool was developed to quantify the time instructors and students engage in various activities within STEM courses. We offer a matrix of joint instructor-student behaviors rather than a pie chart of individual behaviors as an alternative perspective on the presentation of the results from the COPUS instrument. We suggest that the presentation of the results using this matrix tool allows for finer-scale insights into the learning environment in a classroom. Using this matrix tool, we identified four profiles of instructor-student behavior in undergraduate STEM classes at our regional comprehensive Master's institution: lecture, lecture plus (lecture with students posing questions to the instructor), standing clickers/IF-ATs (immediate feedback assessment technique-instructor poses questions using some form of immediate response method but does not move around groups), and roving groups (requiring instructor to move between groups). Prior to using the COPUS instrument we placed each of the observed faculty along the active learning spectrum. Our matrix tool was validated by alignment of the matrix tool profiles with these a priori designations. We offer suggestions regarding how this matrix tool can be best used to inform faculty professional development to move instructors along the active learning spectrum.

An EEG nicotinic acetylcholine index to assess the efficacy of pro-cognitive compounds.

OBJECTIVES: Cognitive impairment models are used in clinical studies aimed at proving pharmacology of drugs being developed for Alzheimer's disease and other cognitive disorders. Due to rising interest in nicotinic agonists, we aimed to establish a method to monitor neurophysiological effects of modulating the nicotinic cholinergic system. METHODS: In a four-way cross-over study, eyes-closed rest EEG was recorded in 28 healthy subjects receiving mecamylamine-a nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) antagonist, which induces temporary cognitive dysfunction in healthy subjects-with co-administration of placebo, nicotine or galantamine. RESULTS: Using machine learning to optimally contrast the effects of 30 mg of mecamylamine and placebo on the brain, we developed a nAChR index that consists of 10 EEG biomarkers and shows high classification accuracy (∼95% non-cross-validated, ∼70% cross-validated). Importantly, using the nAChR index, we demonstrate reversal of mecamylamine-induced neurophysiological effects due to 16 mg of galantamine as well as administering 21 mg of nicotine transdermally. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that the mecamylamine challenge model jointly with the nAChR index-a measure of the nicotinic EEG profile-could aid future proof-of-pharmacology studies to demonstrate effects of nicotinic cholinergic compounds. SIGNIFICANCE: This novel measure for quantifying nicotinic cholinergic effects on the EEG could serve as a useful tool in drug development of pro-cognitive compounds.

Reversal of mecamylamine-induced effects in healthy subjects by nicotine receptor agonists: Cognitive and (electro) physiological responses.

AIMS: Establishing a pharmacological challenge model could yield an important tool to understand the complex role of the nicotinic cholinergic system in cognition and to develop novel compounds acting on the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. METHODS: This randomized, double-blind, double-dummy, placebo-controlled, four-way crossover study examined the effects of the nicotinic antagonist mecamylamine on a battery of cognitive and neurophysiological test with coadministration of a placebo, nicotine or galantamine in order to reverse the cognitive impairment caused by mecamylamine. RESULTS: Thirty-three healthy subjects received a single oral dose of 30 mg of mecamylamine (or placebo) in combination with either 16 mg of oral galantamine or 21 mg of transdermal nicotine (or its double-dummy). Mecamylamine 30 mg induced significant disturbances of cognitive functions. Attention and execution of visual (fine) motor tasks was decreased, short- and long-term memory was impaired and the reaction velocity during the test was slower when compared to placebo. Mecamylamine 30 mg produced a decrease in posterior α and ß power in the surface electroencephalogram, effects that were reversed by nicotine coadministration. Memory and motor coordination tests could be partially reversed by the coadministration of nicotine. CONCLUSIONS: Mecamylamine administration induced slowing of the electroencephalogram and produced decrease in performance of tests evaluating motor coordination, sustained attention and short- and long-term memory. These effects could be partially reversed by the coadministration of nicotine, and to a lesser extent by galantamine.