Clues to the Design of Aggregation-Resistant Insulin from Proline Scanning of Highly Amyloidogenic Peptides Derived from the N-Terminal Segment of the A-Chain.

Insulin aggregation poses a significant problem in pharmacology and medicine as it occurs during prolonged storage of the hormone and in vivo at insulin injection sites. We have recently shown that dominant forces driving the self-assembly of insulin fibrils are likely to arise from intermolecular interactions involving the N-terminal segment of the A-chain (ACC1-13). Here, we study how proline substitutions within the pilot GIVEQ sequence of this fragment affect its propensity to aggregate in both neutral and acidic environments. In a reasonable agreement with in silico prediction based on the Cordax algorithm, proline substitutions at positions 3, 4, and 5 turn out to be very effective in preventing aggregation according to thioflavin T-fluorescence-based kinetic assay, infrared spectroscopy, and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Since the valine and glutamate side chains within this segment are strongly involved in the interactions with the insulin receptor, we have focused on the possible implications of the Q → P substitution for insulin's stability and interactions with the receptor. To this end, comparative molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of the Q5P mutant and wild-type insulin were carried out for both free and receptor-bound (site 1) monomers. The results point to a mild destabilization of the mutant vis à vis the wild-type monomer, as well as partial preservation of key contacts in the complex between Q5P insulin and the receptor. We discuss the implications of these findings in the context of the design of aggregation-resistant insulin analogues retaining hormonal activity.

Integrative modeling of diverse protein-peptide systems using CABS-dock.

The CABS model can be applied to a wide range of protein-protein and protein-peptide molecular modeling tasks, such as simulating folding pathways, predicting structures, docking, and analyzing the structural dynamics of molecular complexes. In this work, we use the CABS-dock tool in two diverse modeling tasks: 1) predicting the structures of amyloid protofilaments and 2) identifying cleavage sites in the peptide substrates of proteolytic enzymes. In the first case, simulations of the simultaneous docking of amyloidogenic peptides indicated that the CABS model can accurately predict the structures of amyloid protofilaments which have an in-register parallel architecture. Scoring based on a combination of symmetry criteria and estimated interaction energy values for bound monomers enables the identification of protofilament models that closely match their experimental structures for 5 out of 6 analyzed systems. For the second task, it has been shown that CABS-dock coarse-grained docking simulations can be used to identify the positions of cleavage sites in the peptide substrates of proteolytic enzymes. The cleavage site position was correctly identified for 12 out of 15 analyzed peptides. When combined with sequence-based methods, these docking simulations may lead to an efficient way of predicting cleavage sites in degraded proteins. The method also provides the atomic structures of enzyme-substrate complexes, which can give insights into enzyme-substrate interactions that are crucial for the design of new potent inhibitors.

Self-Assembly of Insulin-Derived Chimeric Peptides into Two-Component Amyloid Fibrils: The Role of Coulombic Interactions.

Canonical amyloid fibrils are composed of covalently identical polypeptide chains. Here, we employ kinetic assays, atomic force microscopy, infrared spectroscopy, circular dichroism, and molecular dynamics simulations to study fibrillization patterns of two chimeric peptides, ACC1-13E8 and ACC1-13K8, in which a potent amyloidogenic stretch derived from the N-terminal segment of the insulin A-chain (ACC1-13) is coupled to octaglutamate or octalysine segments, respectively. While large electric charges prevent aggregation of either peptide at neutral pH, stoichiometric mixing of ACC1-13E8 and ACC1-13K8 triggers rapid self-assembly of two-component fibrils driven by favorable Coulombic interactions. The low-symmetry nonpolar ACC1-13 pilot sequence is crucial in enforcing the fibrillar structure consisting of parallel ß-sheets as the self-assembly of free poly-E and poly-K chains under similar conditions results in amorphous antiparallel ß-sheets. Interestingly, ACC1-13E8 forms highly ordered fibrils also when paired with nonpolypeptide polycationic amines such as branched polyethylenimine, instead of ACC1-13K8. Such synthetic polycations are more effective in triggering the fibrillization of ACC1-13E8 than poly-K (or poly-E in the case of ACC1-13K8). The high conformational flexibility of these polyamines makes up for the apparent mismatch in periodicity of charged groups. The results are discussed in the context of mechanisms of heterogeneous disease-related amyloidogenesis.

A comprehensive pharmacological analysis of fenoterol and its derivatives to unravel the role of ß2-adrenergic receptor in zebrafish.

ß-adrenergic receptors (ßARs) belong to a key molecular targets that regulate the most important processes occurring in the human organism. Although over the last decades a zebrafish model has been developed as a model complementary to rodents in biomedical research, the role of ß2AR in regulation of pathological and toxicological effects remains to elucidate. Therefore, the study aimed to clarify the role of ß2AR with a particular emphasis on the distinct role of subtypes A and B of zebrafish ß2AR. As model compounds selective ß2AR agonists - (R,R)-fenoterol ((R,R)-Fen) and its new derivatives: (R,R)-4'-methoxyfenoterol ((R,R)-MFen) and (R,R)-4'-methoxy-1-naphtylfenoterol ((R,R)-MNFen) - were tested. We described dose-dependent changes observed after fenoterols exposure in terms of general toxicity, cardiotoxicity and neurobehavioural responses. Subsequently, to better characterise the role of ß2-adrenergic stimulation in zebrafish, we have performed a series of molecular docking simulations. Our results indicate that (R,R)-Fen displays the highest affinity for subtype A of zebrafish ß2AR and ß2AAR might be involved in pigment depletion. (R,R)-MFen shows the lowest affinity for zebrafish ß2ARs out of the tested fenoterols and this might be associated with its cardiotoxic and anxiogenic effects. (R,R)-MNFen displays the highest affinity for subtype B of zebrafish ß2AR and modulation of this receptor might be associated with the development of malformations, increases locomotor activity and induces a negative chronotropic effect. Taken together, the presented data offer insights into the functional responses of the zebrafish ß2ARs confirming their intraspecies conservation, and support the translation of the zebrafish model in pharmacological and toxicological research.

Forced amyloidogenic cooperativity of structurally incompatible peptide segments: Fibrillization behavior of highly aggregation-prone A-chain fragment of insulin coupled to all-L, and alternating L/D octaglutamates.

Aggregation of proteins into amyloid fibrils is driven by interactions between relatively small amyloidogenic segments. The interplay between aggregation-prone and aggregation-resistant fragments within a single polypeptide chain remains obscure. Here, we examine fibrillization behavior of two chimeric peptides, ACC1-13E8 and ACC1-13E8(L/D), in which the highly amyloidogenic fragment of insulin (ACC1-13) is extended by an octaglutamate segment composed of all-L (E8), or alternating L/D residues (E8(L/D)). As separate entities, ACC1-13 readily forms fibrils with the infrared features of parallel ß-sheet while E8 forms antiparallel ß-sheets with the distinct infrared characteristics. This contrasts with the profoundly aggregation-resistant E8(L/D), although L/D patterns have been hypothesized as compatible with aggregated α-sheets. ACC1-13E8 and ACC1-13E8(L/D) are found to be equally prone to fibrillization at low pH, or in the presence of Ca2+ ions. Fibrillar states of both ACC1-13E8 and ACC1-13E8(L/D) reveal the infrared features of highly ordered parallel ß-sheet without evidence of ß2-aggregates (ACC1-13E8) or α-sheets (ACC1-13E8(L/D)). Hence, the preferred structural pattern of ACC1-13 overrides the tendency of E8 to form antiparallel ß-sheets and enforces the fibrillar order in E8(L/D). We demonstrate how the powerful amyloid stretch determines the overall amyloid structure forcing non-amyloidogenic fragments to participate in its native amyloid pattern.

Virtual Quasi-2D Intermediates as Building Blocks for Plausible Structural Models of Amyloid Fibrils from Proteins with Complex Topologies: A Case Study of Insulin.

Conformational transitions of globular proteins into amyloid fibrils are complex multistage processes exceedingly challenging to simulate using molecular dynamics (MD). Slow monomer diffusion rates and rugged free energy landscapes disfavor swift self-assembly of orderly amyloid architectures within timescales accessible to all-atom MD. Here, we conduct a multiscale MD study of the amyloidogenic self-assembly of insulin: a small protein with a complex topology defined by two polypeptide chains interlinked by three disulfide bonds. To avoid kinetic traps, unconventional preplanarized insulin conformations are used as amyloid building blocks. These starting conformers generated through uniaxial compression of the native monomer in various spatial directions represent 6 distinct (out of 16 conceivable) two-dimensional (2D) topological classes varying in N-/C-terminal segments of insulin's A- and B-chains being placed inside or outside of the central loop constituted by the middle sections of both chains and Cys7A-Cys7B/Cys19B-Cys20A disulfide bonds. Simulations of the fibrillar self-assembly are initiated through a biased in-register alignment of two, three, or four layers of flat conformers belonging to a single topological class. The various starting topologies are conserved throughout the self-assembly process resulting in polymorphic amyloid fibrils varying in structural features such as helical twist, presence of cavities, and overall stability. Some of the protofilament structures obtained in this work are highly compatible with the earlier biophysical studies on insulin amyloid and high-resolution studies on insulin-derived amyloidogenic peptide models postulating the presence of steric zippers. Our approach provides in silico means to study amyloidogenic tendencies and viable amyloid architectures of larger disulfide-constrained proteins with complex topologies.

Selective and stoichiometric incorporation of ATP by self-assembling amyloid fibrils.

ATP acts as a biological hydrotrope preventing protein aggregation. Here, we report a novel chimeric peptide, ACC1-13K8, with an unusual capacity to bind and incorporate ATP while self-assembling into amyloid fibrils. The amino acid sequence combines a highly amyloidogenic segment of insulin's A-chain (ACC1-13) and octalysine (K8). Fibrillization requires binding 2 ATP molecules per ACC1-13K8 monomer and is not triggered by adenosine di- and monophosphates (ADP, AMP). Infrared and CD spectra and AFM-based morphological analysis reveal tight and orderly entrapment of ATP within superstructural hybrid peptide-ATP fibrils. The incorporation of ATP is an emergent property of ACC1-13K8 not observed for ACC1-13 and K8 segments separately. We demonstrate how new functionalities (e.g. ATP storage) emerge from synergistic coupling of amyloidogenic segments with non-amyloidogenic peptide ligands, and suggest that ATP's role in protein misfolding is more nuanced than previously assumed.

Reversible Freeze-Induced ß-Sheet-to-Disorder Transition in Aggregated Homopolypeptide System.

Conformational transitions involving aggregated proteins or peptides are of paramount biomedical and biotechnological importance. Here, we report an unusual freeze-induced structural reorganization within a ß-sheet-rich ionic coaggregate of poly(l-lysine), PLL, and poly(l-glutamic acid), PLGA. Freezing aqueous suspensions of the PLL-PLGA ß-aggregate in the presence of low concentrations of salt (NaBr) induces an instantaneous ß-sheet-to-disorder transition, as probed by infrared spectroscopy in the amide I' band region. The conformational rearrangement of polypeptide chains appears to be fully synchronized with the global liquid-to-ice phase transition. In contrast to the known freeze-induced transitions, the process described here is fully reversible: the subsequent thawing results in an instantaneous disorder-to-ß-sheet "refolding". However, in the absence of traces of soluble salts, the ß-sheet framework of the PLL-PLGA aggregate remains resistant to freezing as no transition is observed. We note that the occurrence of the transition depends on the type of salt present in the sample. Our results highlight a hidden dimension of the structural dynamics within ß-sheet-rich aggregates. Possible scenarios of freeze-induced salt-bridge rupture and removal of water from nanocanals are discussed.

Revisiting the conformational state of albumin conjugated to gold nanoclusters: A self-assembly pathway to giant superstructures unraveled.

Bovine serum albumin (BSA) is often employed as a proteinaceous component for synthesis of luminescent protein-stabilized gold nanoclusters (AuNC): intriguing systems with many potential applications. Typically, the formation of BSA-AuNC conjugate occurs under strongly alkaline conditions. Due to the sheer complexity of intertwined chemical and structural transitions taking place upon BSA-AuNC formation, the state of albumin enveloping AuNCs remains poorly characterized. Here, we study the conformational properties of BSA bound to AuNCs using an array of biophysical tools including vibrational spectroscopy, circular dichroism, fluorescence spectroscopy and trypsin digestion. The alkaline conditions of BSA-AuNC self-assembly appear to be primary responsible for the profound irreversible disruption of tertiary contacts, partial unfolding of native α-helices, hydrolysis of disulfide bonds and the protein becoming vulnerable to trypsin digestion. Further unfolding of BSA-AuNC by guanidinium hydrochloride (GdnHCl) is fully reversible equally in terms of albumin's secondary structure and conjugate's luminescent properties. This suggests that binding to AuNCs traps the albumin molecule in a state that is both partly disordered and refractory to irreversible misfolding. Indeed, when BSA-AuNC is subjected to conditions favoring self-association of BSA into amyloid-like fibrils, the buildup of non-native ß-sheet conformation is less pronounced than in a control experiment with unmodified BSA. Unexpectedly, BSA-AuNC reveals a tendency to self-assemble into giant twisted superstructures of micrometer lengths detectable with transmission electron microscopy (TEM), a property absent in unmodified BSA. The process is accompanied by ordering of bound AuNCs into elongated streaks and simultaneous decrease in fluorescence intensity. The newly discovered self-association pathway appears to be specifically accessible to protein molecules with a certain restriction on structural dynamics which in the case of BSA-AuNC arises from binding to metal nanoclusters. Our results have been discussed in the context of mechanisms of protein misfolding and applications of BSA-AuNC.

Effects of terminal capping on the fibrillation of short (L-Glu)n peptides.

Several homopolypeptides including poly-l-glutamic acid (PLGA) form amyloid-like fibrils under favorable physicochemical conditions. We have shown recently that even short uncapped (Glu)n peptides (for n>3) form fibrillar ß-aggregates which cross-seed with amyloid fibrils obtained from high molecular weight fractions of PLGA. Here we investigate effects of N-terminal acetylation and C-terminal amidation on the amyloidogenic tendencies of (Glu)n peptides containing 3, 4, and 5 residues. Our results based primarily on time-lapse FT-IR spectroscopy and AFM microscopy indicate that selective modifications of C-termini (and, to a lesser degree, of N-termini) decrease capacity of tetra- and pentapeptides to form fibrils. On the other hand, peptides modified at both ends appear to form fibrils as fast as unmodified analogues. In fact, the double terminal modification enables fibrillation of (Glu)3 which is not fibrillogenic in the unmodified state. The AFM data suggests that the double capping results in the aggregates becoming more tape-like or acquiring noticeable tendencies to bend. According to seeding and cross-seeding experiments, there is a high degree of promiscuity between modified and unmodified peptides. Possible mechanisms explaining how amyloidogenic propensities of (Glu)n peptides are affected by terminal modifications have been discussed.

Coarse-Grained Simulations of Membrane Insertion and Folding of Small Helical Proteins Using the CABS Model.

The CABS coarse-grained model is a well-established tool for modeling globular proteins (predicting their structure, dynamics, and interactions). Here we introduce an extension of the CABS representation and force field (CABS-membrane) to the modeling of the effect of the biological membrane environment on the structure of membrane proteins. We validate the CABS-membrane model in folding simulations of 10 short helical membrane proteins not using any knowledge about their structure. The simulations start from random protein conformations placed outside the membrane environment and allow for full flexibility of the modeled proteins during their spontaneous insertion into the membrane. In the resulting trajectories, we have found models close to the experimental membrane structures. We also attempted to select the correctly folded models using simple filtering followed by structural clustering combined with reconstruction to the all-atom representation and all-atom scoring. The CABS-membrane model is a promising approach for further development toward modeling of large protein-membrane systems.

Beware of Cocktails: Chain-Length Bidispersity Triggers Explosive Self-Assembly of Poly-L-Glutamic Acid ß2-Fibrils.

Chain-length polydispersity is among the least understood factors governing the fibrillation propensity of homopolypeptides. For monodisperse poly-L-glutamic acid (PLGA), the tendency to form fibrils depends of the main-chain length. Long-chained PLGA, so-called (Glu)200, fibrillates more readily than short (Glu)5 fragments. Here we show that conversion of α-helical (Glu)200 into amyloid-like ß-fibrils is dramatically accelerated in the presence of intrinsically disordered (Glu)5. While separately self-assembled fibrils of (Glu)200 and (Glu)5 reveal distinct morphological and infrared characteristics, accelerated fibrillation in mixed (Glu)200 and (Glu)5 leads to aggregates similar to neat (Glu)200 fibrils, even in excess of (Glu)5. According to molecular dynamics simulations and circular dichroism measurements, local events of "misfolding transfer" from (Glu)5 to (Glu)200 may play a key role in the initial stages of conformational dynamics underlying the observed phenomenon. Our results highlight chain-length polydispersity as a potent, although so-far unrecognized factor profoundly affecting the fibrillation propensity of homopolypeptides.

Amyloidogenic Properties of Short α-L-Glutamic Acid Oligomers.

Poly-L-glutamic acid (PLGA) forms amyloid-like ß2-fibrils with the main spectral component of vibrational amide I' band unusually shifted below 1600 cm(-1). This distinct infrared feature has been attributed to the presence of bifurcated hydrogen bonds coupling C═O and N-D (N-H) groups of the main chains to glutamate side chains. Here, we investigate how decreasing the chain length of PLGA affects its capacity to form ß2-fibrils. A series of acidified aqueous solutions of synthetic (l-Glu)n peptides (n ≈ 200, 10, 6, 5, 4, and 3) were incubated at high temperature. We observed that n = 4 is the critical chain length for which formation of aggregates with the ß2-like infrared features is still observed under such conditions. Interestingly, according to atomic force microscopy (AFM), the self-assembly of (L-Glu)n chains varying vastly in length produces fibrils with rather uniform diameters of approximately 4-6 nm. Kinetic experiments on (L-Glu)5 and (L-Glu)200 peptides indicate that the fibrillation is significantly accelerated not only in the presence of homologous seeds but also upon cross-seeding, suggesting thereby a common self-assembly theme for (L-Glu)n chains of various lengths. Our results are discussed in the context of mechanisms of amyloidogenic fibrillation of homopolypeptides.

Low-temperature molecular dynamics simulations of horse heart cytochrome c and comparison with inelastic neutron scattering data.

Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation combined with inelastic neutron scattering can provide information about the thermal dynamics of proteins, especially the low-frequency vibrational modes responsible for large movement of some parts of protein molecules. We performed several 30-ns MD simulations of cytochrome c (Cyt c) in a water box for temperatures ranging from 110 to 300 K and compared the results with those from experimental inelastic neutron scattering. The low-frequency vibrational modes were obtained via dynamic structure factors, S(Q, ω), obtained both from inelastic neutron scattering experiments and calculated from MD simulations for Cyt c in the same range of temperatures. The well known thermal transition in structural movements of Cyt c is clearly seen in MD simulations; it is, however, confined to unstructured fragments of loops Ω1 and Ω2; movement of structured loop Ω3 and both helical ends of the protein is resistant to thermal disturbance. Calculated and experimental S(Q, ω) plots are in qualitative agreement for low temperatures whereas above 200 K a boson peak vanishes from the calculated plots. This may be a result of loss of crystal structure by the protein-water system compared with the protein crystal.

The role of water in activation mechanism of human N-formyl peptide receptor 1 (FPR1) based on molecular dynamics simulations.

The Formyl Peptide Receptor 1 (FPR1) is an important chemotaxis receptor involved in various aspects of host defense and inflammatory processes. We constructed a model of FPR1 using as a novel template the chemokine receptor CXCR4 from the same branch of the phylogenetic tree of G-protein-coupled receptors. The previously employed template of rhodopsin contained a bulge at the extracellular part of TM2 which directly influenced binding of ligands. We also conducted molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of FPR1 in the apo form as well as in a form complexed with the agonist fMLF and the antagonist tBocMLF in the model membrane. During all MD simulation of the fMLF-FPR1 complex a water molecule transiently bridged the hydrogen bond between W254(6.48) and N108(3.35) in the middle of the receptor. We also observed a change in the cytoplasmic part of FPR1 of a rotamer of the Y301(7.53) residue (tyrosine rotamer switch). This effect facilitated movement of more water molecules toward the receptor center. Such rotamer of Y301(7.53) was not observed in any crystal structures of GPCRs which can suggest that this state is temporarily formed to pass the water molecules during the activation process. The presence of a distance between agonist and residues R201(5.38) and R205(5.42) on helix TM5 may suggest that the activation of FPR1 is similar to the activation of ß-adrenergic receptors since their agonists are separated from serine residues on helix TM5. The removal of water molecules bridging these interactions in FPR1 can result in shrinking of the binding site during activation similarly to the shrinking observed in ß-ARs. The number of GPCR crystal structures with agonists is still scarce so the designing of new ligands with agonistic properties is hampered, therefore homology modeling and docking can provide suitable models. Additionally, the MD simulations can be beneficial to outline the mechanisms of receptor activation and the agonist/antagonist sensing.

Ubiquitous amyloids.

The common view of amyloids and prion proteins is that they are associated with many currently incurable diseases and present a great danger to an organism. This danger comes from the fact that not only prion proteins, but also the infectious form(s) of amyloids, as it has been shown recently, are able to transmit the disease. On the other hand, organisms take advantage of the strength and durability of specific forms of amyloids. Such forms do not spread any disease. Also, in nanotechnology there is a constantly growing need to employ amyloid fibrils in many industrial applications. With increasing knowledge about amyloids and prion proteins we are aware that the amyloidal state is inherent to any protein, making the problem of amyloid formation a central one in aging-related diseases. However, the "good" amyloids can be beneficial and even necessary for our health. Furthermore, because of their mechanical properties, the amyloids are of great interest to engineers.

Structural investigation of the C-terminal catalytic fragment of presenilin 1.

The gamma-secretase complex has a decisive role in the development of Alzheimer's disease, in that it cleaves a precursor to create the amyloid beta peptide whose aggregates form the senile plaques encountered in the brains of patients. Gamma-secretase is a member of the intramembrane-cleaving proteases which process their transmembrane substrates within the bilayer. Many of the mutations encountered in early onset familial Alzheimer's disease are linked to presenilin 1, the catalytic component of gamma-secretase, whose active form requires its endoproteolytic cleavage into N-terminal and C-terminal fragments. Although there is general agreement regarding the topology of the N-terminal fragment, studies of the C-terminal fragment have yielded ambiguous and contradictory results that may be difficult to reconcile in the absence of structural information. Here we present the first structure of the C-terminal fragment of human presenilin 1, as obtained from NMR studies in SDS micelles. The structure reveals a topology where the membrane is likely traversed three times in accordance with the more generally accepted nine transmembrane domain model of presenilin 1, but contains unique structural features adapted to accommodate the unusual intramembrane catalysis. These include a putative half-membrane-spanning helix N-terminally harboring the catalytic aspartate, a severely kinked helical structure toward the C terminus as well as a soluble helix in the assumed-to-be unstructured N-terminal loop.

Modulation of molecular interactions and function by rhodopsin palmitylation.

Rhodopsin is palmitylated at two cysteine residues in its carboxyl terminal region. We have looked at the effects of palmitylation on the molecular interactions formed by rhodopsin using single-molecule force spectroscopy and the function of rhodopsin using both in vitro and in vivo approaches. A knockin mouse model expressing palmitate-deficient rhodopsin was used for live animal in vivo studies and to obtain native tissue samples for in vitro assays. We specifically looked at the effects of palmitylation on the chromophore-binding pocket, interactions of rhodopsin with transducin, and molecular interactions stabilizing the receptor structure. The structure of rhodopsin is largely unperturbed by the absence of palmitate linkage. The binding pocket for the chromophore 11-cis-retinal is minimally altered as palmitate-deficient rhodopsin exhibited the same absorbance spectrum as wild-type rhodopsin. Similarly, the rate of release of all-trans-retinal after light activation was the same both in the presence and absence of palmitylation. Significant differences were observed in the rate of transducin activation by rhodopsin and in the force required to unfold the last stable structural segment in rhodopsin at its carboxyl terminal end. A 1.3-fold reduction in the rate of transducin activation by rhodopsin was observed in the absence of palmitylation. Single-molecule force spectroscopy revealed a 2.1-fold reduction in the normalized force required to unfold the carboxyl terminal end of rhodopsin. The absence of palmitylation in rhodopsin therefore destabilizes the molecular interactions formed in the carboxyl terminal end of the receptor, which appears to hinder the activation of transducin by light-activated rhodopsin.