[When HbA1c is unreliable : a case report of hereditary spherocytosis]. / Cas clinique. Quand le dosage de l'HbA1c n'est pas fiable : à propos d'un cas de sphérocytose héréditaire.

Glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) is a biological parameter used in the management of diabetic patients. Independent of the daytime glycaemic variations, but complementary to the measurement of blood glucose or subcutaneous glucose concentrations, it allows both the clinician and the patient to have an appreciation of the glycaemic balance of the last weeks. In this way, anti-diabetic treatment can be adjusted if necessary to achieve the desired goal and hopefully delay or prevent diabetes-related micro- and macroangiopathic complications. Some conditions can alter the glycation of haemoglobin. In this case, the HbA1c level becomes difficult to interpret. Hereditary spherocytosis may be revealed by a dissociation between low HbA1c level and high blood glucose levels. A family history, Coombs-negative haemolytic anaemia, or a finding of spherocytes in the blood smear is suggestive of hereditary spherocytosis. Fructosamine testing may be an alternative. This article will present a patient with hereditary spherocytosis in whom the HbA1c level was not interpretable when compared to the elevated blood glucose measurements.

: L'hémoglobine glyquée (HbA1c) est une valeur biologique utilisée dans le suivi des patients diabétiques. Indépendante de la variation glycémique nycthémérale, mais complémentaire à la mesure de la glycémie ou de la concentration sous-cutanée de glucose, elle permet tant au clinicien qu'au patient d'avoir une appréciation de l'équilibre glycémique des dernières semaines. De cette manière, le traitement anti-diabétique peut être éventuellement adapté pour atteindre l'objectif escompté et espérer retarder, voire prévenir, les complications micro- et macroangiopathiques liées au diabète. Certaines affections peuvent altérer la glycation de l'hémoglobine. Dans ce cas, le taux d'HbA1C devient difficile à interpréter. La sphérocytose héréditaire peut se révéler par un tableau de dissociation entre un taux bas d'HbA1C et des valeurs élevées de glycémie. Des antécédents familiaux, une anémie hémolytique à Coombs négatif, ou une observation de sphérocytes dans le frottis sanguin sont en faveur d'un diagnostic de sphérocytose héréditaire. Le dosage de la fructosamine peut être une alternative. Le présent article abordera le cas d'un patient atteint d'une sphérocytose héréditaire chez qui le taux d'HbA1c n'était pas interprétable en regard des contrôles glycémiques.

[Nasal glucagon (Baqsimi®), new treatment for hypoglycaemic coma]. / Le médicament du mois. Le glucagon nasal (Baqsimi®), nouveau traitement du coma hypoglycémique.

Patients with insulin-treated type 1 diabetes (T1D) are exposed to hypoglycaemia, which may be serious. Serious cognitive impairment (including coma and seizure) that requires the help of a third party is a medical emergency. Besides the intravenous injection of glucose by a health care provider, its treatment consists of the subcutaneous or intramuscular injection of glucagon which may be performed by a family member. However, such an injection is not easy and puts off some people, which retards the initiation of a potentially life-saving therapy. The intranasal administration of 3 mg glucagon has been shown as efficacious as the subcutaneous or intramuscular injection of 1 mg glucagon in controlled studies carried out in both adult and youth patients with T1D. Stimulation and real-life studies among caregivers, patients and acquaintances showed a preference for nasal glucagon because of its easy and quick use. The launch of nasal glucagon (Baqsimi®) offers new perspectives for the ambulatory emergency management of severe hypoglycaemia and hypoglycaemic coma with a special obvious advantage in children.

La personne avec un diabète de type 1 (DT1) traité par insuline est exposée à un risque d'hypoglycémie, parfois grave. L'hypoglycémie sévère qui désigne tout trouble cognitif grave (y compris coma, convulsion) nécessitant l'intervention d'un tiers est une urgence médicale. Outre l'injection de glucose par voie intraveineuse, réservée à un personnel de santé, le traitement consiste en l'injection de glucagon par voie sous-cutanée ou intramusculaire qui peut être réalisée par un membre de l'entourage. Cependant, cette injection n'est pas aisée et rebute certaines personnes, ce qui retarde la mise en route d'un traitement potentiellement salvateur. L'administration nasale de glucagon 3 mg s'est avérée aussi performante que l'injection sous-cutanée ou intramusculaire de 1 mg dans des études contrôlées réalisées chez des patients DT1 adultes ou enfants/adolescents. Des études de simulation et de vraie vie réalisées auprès de soignants, de patients et de connaissances ont montré une préférence pour la forme nasale en raison de sa facilité et rapidité d'utilisation. La commercialisation du glucagon nasal (Baqsimi®) offre de nouvelles perspectives pour le traitement d'urgence ambulatoire de l'hypoglycémie sévère et du coma, avec un avantage particulièrement évident chez les enfants.

[Covid-19 and diabetes]. / COVID-19 et diabète.

Diabetes is one of the most important comorbidities linked to the severity of infection caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2). The prevalence of diabetic patients hospitalized in intensive care units for COVID-19 is two-to-threefold higher than that observed in non-diabetic patients and a risk of progressing to critical or fatal disease is increased by a factor of 3 to 4 in patients with diabetes. Multiple mechanisms link diabetes as a risk factor of severe COVID-19, including both diabetes-related (such as hyperglycaemia) and diabetes-associated (such as immune dysfunction, obesity and hypertension) components. Optimising glycaemic control to reduce the risk of severe COVID-19 appears important but challenging and the best choice of antidiabetic treatment remains to be established, even if an early introduction of insulin in type 2 diabetes patients with COVID-19 is encouraged upon admission to the hospital. Future investigations are necessary to improve both the management and the prognosis in these very high risk patients.

Le diabète est l'une des comorbidités les plus importantes liées à la gravité de l'infection causée par le SARS-CoV-2 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome CoronaVirus 2). La prévalence des patients diabétiques hospitalisés en unités de soins intensifs pour COVID-19 est deux à trois fois plus élevée que celle observée chez les patients non diabétiques et le risque d'évolution vers une forme critique ou mortelle de l'affection est multiplié par 3 à 4 chez les patients diabétiques. Plusieurs mécanismes peuvent expliquer pourquoi le diabète constitue un facteur de risque de forme sévère de la COVID-19, certains sont liés intrinsèquement au diabète (comme l'hyperglycémie) et d'autres sont associés au diabète (comme la dysfonction immunitaire, l'obésité et l'hypertension artérielle). Optimiser le contrôle glycémique pour réduire le risque de COVID-19 sévère semble important, mais difficile, et le meilleur choix de traitement antidiabétique reste à établir, même si l'introduction d'un traitement par insuline chez les patients diabétiques de type 2 atteints de COVID-19 est encouragée dès l'admission à hôpital. De nouvelles études, en particulier sur le plan clinique, demeurent indispensables pour améliorer la prise en charge et le pronostic de ces patients à très haut risque.

[Therapeutic and technological advances in the management of adult patients with type 1 diabetes]. / Avancées thérapeutiques et technologiques dans la prise en charge du patient diabétique de type 1 adulte.

Management of type 1 diabetes remains a challenge. Indeed, many parameters can influence glycemia. Faced with this challenge, recent years have seen the emergence of various advances. These ones relate not only to new therapeutics but also to techniques dedicated to the management of type 1 diabetes. Among the therapeutic advances, the main ones concern improvement of pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of insulins. Some other drugs might be worth considering, such as gliflozins in particular. In addition to these advances, the technological aspect of care continues to improve. There are many new possibilities with continuous insulin infusion pumps. The (semi-) continuous glucose monitoring clearly revolutionized the approach. Coupling this continuous measurement with some insulin pumps allows some patients to benefit from hybrid artificial pancreas. This article briefly discusses advances of the past decade in the management of adults with type 1 diabetes.

La prise en charge du diabète de type 1 reste un challenge. En effet, de nombreux paramètres peuvent influencer la glycémie. Face à ce défi, ces dernières années ont vu l'émergence de différentes avancées. Celles-ci concernent à la fois les thérapeutiques mais également les techniques dédiées à la prise en charge du diabète de type 1. Parmi les avancées thérapeutiques, les principales concernent l'amélioration des propriétés pharmacocinétiques et pharmacodynamiques des insulines. En outre, certaines autres classes de médicaments méritent d'être envisagées, comme les gliflozines notamment. A côté de ces progrès, l'aspect technologique de la prise en charge ne cesse de s'améliorer. Les pompes à perfusion continue d'insuline offrent de nombreuses nouvelles possibilités. La mesure (semi)-continue du glucose a clairement révolutionné l'approche envisagée. Le couplage de cette mesure continue du glucose à certains types de pompes à insuline permet d'offrir à des patients sélectionnés de bénéficier de pancréas artificiel hybride. Cet article aborde les avancées de cette dernière décennie dans la prise en charge des personnes adultes diabétiques de type 1.

[Pathologies of the musculoskeletal system in diabetes mellitus]. / Les complications musculo-squelettiques du diabète.

Diabetes mellitus causes several micro- (nephropathy, neuropathy and retinopathy) and macro-vascular (coronary insufficiency, stroke, lower limb arteriopathy) complications. Some complications are less widely known, particularly the ones involving the musculoskeletal system. Even though diabetes is not specifically linked to these complications, it increases both their incidence and severity. The objective of this paper is to review the main musculoskeletal complications associated to diabetes. It describes the pathophysiology, symptomatology and treatments of these complications.

Le diabète sucré entraîne toute une série de complications micro- (néphropathie, rétinopathie et neuropathie) et macro-vasculaires (coronopathie, accident vasculaire cérébral et artériopathie des membres inférieurs). Certaines complications sont moins connues, notamment celles qui touchent le système musculo-squelettique. Ces pathologies ne sont pas spécifiques du diabète, mais celui-ci en augmente fortement, non seulement, l'incidence, mais aussi la sévérité. Le but du présent article est de revoir les principales complications musculo-squelettiques que l'on peut rencontrer chez les personnes diabétiques, en décrire la physiopathologie, la symptomatologie et le traitement à préconiser.

[Contribution of FreeStyle Libre® in the care of diabetic patients : experience at the CHU of Liege]. / L'apport du système FreeStyle Libre® dans la prise en charge du patient diabétique : expérience au CHU de Liège.

Since July 2016, diabetic patients included in the INAMI glycemic self-monitoring system in category A in Belgium can benefit from a new system for measuring the concentration of subcutaneous glucose : FreeStyle Libre® (FSL) from Abbott company. The main advantage of this technology is that it is less invasive as it does not require finger blood sampling and allows patients to obtain, in addition to the instantaneous value of glucose concentration, retrospective kinetic data, but also prospective trend of its kinetics. In this study, we mainly evaluated the contribution of FSL on the overall equilibration of diabetes and on the time spent in hypoglycaemia. We also asked patients how satisfied they were with this system. Data from 838 diabetic patients (type 1 or total insulin deficiency) were collected between May 2016 and October 2017, 645 patients with FSL system and 193 preferring to continue self-monitoring of capillary blood glucose (SBG). In the FSL group, compared to the SBG group, there was a slight decrease in HbA1c estimated at 0.15 ± 0.073 % after 15 months. This decrease appears mainly when the starting level is high (HbA1c superior to 7.5 %). Patients perform an average of 8.8 checks per day : the more patients perform daily scans, the greater the number of data comprised within the target, that is, the better the overall glucose control. A higher number of scans is also associated with a decrease in the average duration of hypoglycaemia. Finally, the satisfaction survey shows a high degree of patient satisfaction with the use of FSL.

Depuis juillet 2016, les patients diabétiques inclus dans la convention d'auto-surveillance glycémique de l'INAMI en catégorie A en Belgique peuvent bénéficier d'un nouveau système de mesure de la concentration du glucose sous-cutané : le FreeStyle Libre® (FSL) de la société Abbott. L'avantage principal de cette technologie est qu'elle est moins invasive puisqu'elle ne nécessite pas de prélèvement sanguin et qu'elle permet aux patients d'obtenir, outre la valeur instantanée de la concentration de glucose, des données cinétiques rétrospectives, mais aussi une tendance prospective de son évolution. Dans cette étude rétrospective, nous avons évalué principalement l'apport du FSL sur l'équilibration du diabète et sur le temps passé en hypoglycémie. Nous avons également interrogé les patients sur leur degré de satisfaction vis-à-vis de ce système. Les données de 838 patients diabétiques (type 1 ou totalement insulinoprives) ont été collectées entre mai 2016 et octobre 2017, 645 patients porteurs du système FSL et 193 préférant poursuivre une auto-surveillance de la glycémie capillaire (ASG). On observe dans le groupe FSL, par rapport au groupe ASG, une légère diminution du taux d'HbA1c évaluée à 0,15 ± 0,073 % après 15 mois. Cette diminution apparaît principalement lorsque le niveau de départ est élevé (HbA1c sup�rieur a 7,5 %). Les patients porteurs du FSL réalisent en moyenne 8,8 contrôles quotidiens : plus les patients effectuent de scans journaliers, plus le nombre de données comprises dans la cible augmente, c'est-à-dire meilleur est l'équilibre glycémique. Un nombre plus élevé de scans est également associé à une diminution de la durée moyenne des hypoglycémies. Enfin, l'enquête de satisfaction démontre, dans l'ensemble, un haut degré de satisfaction des patients par rapport à l'usage du FSL.

[Lipertance® The ASCOT single-pill combination has finally arrived]. / Le médicament du mois : Lipertance® Atorvastatine - Perindopril - Amlodipine La combinaison fixe d'ASCOT est finalement arrivée.

The fixed association of atorvastatin, perindopril and amlodipine was recently launched by the firm SERVIER under the name of Lipertance®. It is the first fixed association of a statin, an ACE inhibitor and a calcium blocker present on the Belgian market to handle the risk factors that are hypertension and dyslipidemia which can be used both in primary and secondary cardiovascular prevention. The interests of such a triple combined therapy are many in terms of morbimortality reduction, as observed in ASCOT trial. Besides these results, the association of these three agents gives probably a synergic effect, which would be more effective to protect both heart and vessels. Moreover, a fixed association will improve treatment compliance and adherence, which are generally quite poor in the management of cardiovascular risk factors. Lipertance® is available with three different doses : 20/5/5 mg, 20/10/5 mg and 40/10/10 mg, respectively for atorvastatin, perindopril and amlodipine. Contraindications and side effects are the same as each component of this association and are well known.

L'association fixe d'atorvastatine, de perindopril et d'amlodipine a été récemment commercialisée par la firme Servier sous le nom de Lipertance®. Il s'agit de la première association statine/ inhibiteur de l'enzyme de conversion/inhibiteur calcique, présente sur le marché belge pour traiter les facteurs de risque que sont l'hypertension artérielle et la dyslipidémie, tant en prévention primaire que secondaire. Les intérêts d'une telle triple thérapie sont nombreux en termes de réduction de morbi-mortalité, notamment cardiovasculaire, comme on a pu l'observer dans l'étude ASCOT. Par ailleurs, associer ces trois molécules entraîne probablement des effets synergiques protecteurs tant sur le plan cardiaque que vasculaire. Outre les effets propres à chaque molécule qui sont bien connus, l'association en monoprise permet d'améliorer l'adhérence thérapeutique qui fait souvent défaut dans la prise en charge des facteurs de risque cardiovasculaire. Lipertance® est proposé en différents dosages, à savoir 20/5/5 mg, 20/10/5 mg et 40/10/10 mg, respectivement, pour l'atorvastatine, le perindopril et l'amlodipine. Les contre-indications de cette association sont les mêmes que celles de chaque molécule et il en va de même pour son profil de tolérance.

[Contribution of continuous glucose measurement in the management of gestational diabetes : a pilot study]. / Intérêt de la mesure continue du glucose dans la gestion du diabète gestationnel : une étude pilote liégeoise.

The prevalence of gestational diabetes increases as a result of universal screening, but also because of more stringent diagnostic criteria due to decreased set points. This diabetes can lead to severe complications for the offspring and / or for the mother. The management of a patient suffering from gestational diabetes is based on healthy diet and lifestyle advices. Iterative control of capillary glycemia is the usual way to monitor daily blood glucose. Continuous blood glucose measurement (CGM) provides reliable and comprehensive data over several days. Observing and interpreting the continuously recorded glucose concentration values should help to better understand the kinetics of glucose and to personalize the treatment. This preliminary study reports the results of 12 women with gestational diabetes and describes fluctuations of blood glucose levels all day long, particularly in the postprandial period. The CGM analysis shows that the maximum concentration of postprandial glucose is reached approximately 70 minutes after the morning and midday meals and 110 minutes after the evening meal.

La prévalence du diabète gestationnel augmente en raison d'un dépistage universel, mais aussi en raison de critères diagnostiques plus stricts, revus à la baisse. Ce diabète peut s'accompagner de complications pouvant être sévères pour l'enfant et/ou la mère. La prise en charge d'une patiente atteinte de diabète gestationnel repose sur les conseils hygiéno-diététiques adaptés et sur la surveillance des fluctuations glycémiques. En pratique habituelle, la surveillance glycémique quotidienne est réalisée via le contrôle itératif des glycémies capillaires. La mesure continue de la glycémie (MCG) offre l'avantage d'obtenir des données fiables et exhaustives sur plusieurs jours. Observer et interpréter les valeurs de concentration de glucose enregistrées de manière continue permettraient de mieux appréhender la cinétique du glucose et, idéalement, de personnaliser l'approche thérapeutique. Ce travail préliminaire rapporte les résultats observés chez 12 patientes présentant un diabète gestationnel et décrit les fluctuations du glucose au cours du nycthémère, particulièrement en période postprandiale. L'analyse de la MCG démontre que la concentration maximale de glucose postprandial est atteinte aux alentours de 70 minutes après le repas du matin et du midi et 110 minutes après le repas du soir.

[PERSONALIZED MEDICINE AND EBM: ETHICAL ASPECTS]. / LA MÉDECINE PERSONNALISÉE FACE À LA MÉDECINE FACTUELLE : ASPECTS ÉTHIQUES.

More patients are actually treated due to the incredible improvements of medical care, especially in the field of pharmacotherapy. Medical guidelines are based on the results of controlled trials. This kind of medicine, also called Evidence Based Medicine (EBM), is actually the cornerstone of good clinical practice. Nevertheless, it remains a lot of patients disappointed by the fact that they have no medical gain of their treatment. The reason is that each patient has his/her own metabolic characteristics. Better is, the characterization of such patients, better will be the treatment targeting them. It is what is called the personalized medicine. To reach this challenge, pharmacogenetic advances would be helpful. From an antagonism between EBM and personalized medicine, this new medical paradigm has to consider these approaches as partners. To reach this goal, medical doctors, legal authorities and pharmaceutical companies have to be responsible in front of these new ethical challenges.

Prevalence of persistent lipid abnormalities in statin-treated patients: Belgian results of the Dyslipidaemia International Study (DYSIS).

AIM: A substantial number of cardiovascular events are not prevented by statin therapy, which is still regarded as the first-line therapy for hyperlipidaemia. Insights into the prevalence of lipid abnormalities of statin-treated patients in Belgium are lacking and may shed light on an unmet medical need for optimal use of current lipid-lowering therapies. This study aims to assess the prevalence and types of persistent lipid abnormalities in patients receiving statin therapy in a real-life primary care setting in Belgium. METHODS: This cross-sectional cohort study was designed to estimate the prevalence of specific lipid abnormalities in statin-treated patients in Belgium. Total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and triglycerides were recorded from the patients' medical record. Patient's total cardiovascular risk and corresponding lipid treatment goals were defined based on the recent European Society of Cardiology/European Atherosclerosis Society recommendations. RESULTS: Overall, 56.2% of the statin-treated patients were not at goal for LDL-C. Low HDL-C (< 40 mg dl(-1) in men, < 45 mg dl(-1) in women) and elevated triglycerides (> 150 mg dl(-1) ) were seen in 16.3% and 29.0% of patients, respectively. Very high-risk patients were more likely to have LDL-C not at goal (71.4% of them), while 60.0% of high-risk patients and 34.1% of moderate-risk patients were not at goal for LDL-C. Use of ezetimibe (10 mg) was strongly associated with meeting LDL-C goals (OR 16.9, p < 0.0001). CONCLUSION: In Belgium, lipid abnormalities remained highly prevalent despite statin treatment, with more than half of all patients not reaching their LDL-C treatment goal. This finding clearly indicates that more aggressive lipid-lowering treatment is required in clinical daily practice to achieve the goals of the current guidelines.

[Concerns about glycated haemoglobin and the limitations of its interpretations]. / A propos de l'hémoglobine glyquée: les limites de son interpretation.

Determining the level of glycated haemoglobin, in particular its major fraction called HbA(1c), is an attractive tool in the management of diabetic patients. In fact, it provides a global evaluation of the glycemic control's level through the past 8-12 weeks. However, this tool must be used with caution. First of all, it does not allow to examine the glycemic kinetics since it represents a glycemic average. Secondly, it does not allow to appreciate the glycemic evolution through the full day. This dosage needs then sometimes to be complemented by fingersticks blood glucose testing. Last but not least, caution is advised in interpreting the results because a number of physiological, pathological and technical factors might interfere with HbA(1c) measurement. It is therefore important that physicians keep a critical view of the values obtained. The paper reviews the different methods used to determine the level of glycated haemoglobin and their limitations. It also emphasizes the medical situations in which over- and under-estimation of the real HbA(1c) value could occur. It does not address the specific issue of the new expression values of HbA(1c) in mmol/mol instead of %. Moreover, the medical situations in which over- and underestimation of the real HbA(1c) value could occur will be described.

[Depression and type 2 diabetes: etiopathogenic analysis of a frequent comorbidity]. / Dépression et diabète de type 2. Analyse étiopathogénique d'une comorbidité fréquente.

Recent advances in the neurobiology of depression have underlined the importance of markers of inflammation, neurotrophins, and hypothalamo-pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction in the development of this pathology. These disorders could have some impact on other systems such as the glucose metabolism regulation with an increased risk of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Type 2 diabetes is also frequently associated with a pro-inflammatory state that could favour the development of a depressive episode. Inflammatory phenomena and HPA axis dysfunction could be biological links between depression and type 2 diabetes and account not only for the frequent association between those two disorders, but also for the treatment-resistance to classical antidepressants.

Accuracy assessment of online glucose monitoring by a subcutaneous enzymatic glucose sensor during exercise in patients with type 1 diabetes treated by continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion.

AIM: Online continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) during physical exercise would be highly useful in patients with insulin-treated diabetes. For this reason, this study assessed whether such a goal could be reached with a subcutaneous 'needle-type' enzymatic sensor. METHODS: Ten patients (five women/five men), aged 51 ± 12 years, with type 1 diabetes for 24 ± 11 years treated by continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII) for more than 1 year (HbA1c: 7.5 ± 0.8%) performed a 30-min bout of exercise at a constant high-intensity load (15% above their individual ventilatory threshold) on a cycle ergometer. All patients wore a subcutaneous 'needle-type' enzymatic glucose sensor linked to a portable monitor (Guardian(®) RT, Medtronic-MiniMed, Northridge, CA, USA) that had been inserted the previous evening. Sensor calibration was performed against capillary blood glucose immediately before the exercise. CGM values were recorded every 5 min from T(-10) to T(+30), then every 10 min during the recovery period from T(+30) to T(+90). These recorded values were compared with blood glucose assays performed on simultaneously collected venous samples. RESULTS: Sensor functioning and tolerability raised no problems except for one sensor that could not be adequately calibrated. Data from this patient were excluded from the data analysis. An average blood glucose decrease of 63 ± 63 mg/dL (3.5 ± 3.5 mmol/L) (median decrease: 58 mg/dL [3.22 mmol/L]; range: -3 mg/dL [0.16 mmol/L] to 178 mg/dL [9.8 mmol/L]) occurred during exercise bouts, while CGM values decreased by 38 ± 49 mg/dL (2.11 ± 2.72 mmol/L) (median: 32 mg/dL [1.7 mmmol/L]; range: -15 mg/dL [0.83 mmol/L] to 58 mg/dL [3.22 mmol/L]). Cumulative paired glucose values (n = 135) could be analyzed. The correlation factor between CGM and blood glucose values was 0.957 with an intercept of 0.275. The mean difference between paired values according to Bland-Altman analysis was 10 ± 31 mg/dL (0.56 ± 1.72 mmol/L). Clarke error grid analysis showed 91% of paired points in A and B zones, while 0%, 9% and 0% of paired points were in the C, D and E zones, respectively. CONCLUSION: Blood glucose changes during intensive physical-exercise bouts performed by CSII-treated type 1 diabetes patients can be estimated with acceptable clinical accuracy by online CGM.

[European guidelines for the management of diabetes, prediabeties and cardiovascular disease. First part. Management of diabetes and cardiovascular risk factors]. / Srecommandations européennes pour la prise en charge du diabète, du pré-diabète et des maladies cardio-vasculaire. 1ère partie. Gestion du diabetè et des facteurs de risque cardio-vasculaire.

The patient with prediabetes or diabetes has a high or very high risk of cardiovascular diseases.We summarize the recent guidelines jointly published by the European Society of Cardiology and the European Society for the Study of Diabetes. In this first article, we focus mainly on the preventive approaches of cardiovascular diseases in patients with prediabetes or (type 1 or type 2) diabetes. The crucial importance of a global multifactorial strategy is emphasized and the target levels of various risk factors are updated. The management of these cardiovascular complications in presence of diabetes will be considered in a second article.

[Type 1 diabetes: from genetic predisposition to hypothetical environmental triggers]. / Le diabete de type 1: de la prédisposition génétique à un contexte environnemental hypothétique.

Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease that results in a progressive (complete in most cases) destruction of insulin-secreting beta cells from Langerhans islets. Even if the autoimmune process becomes to be well known, no one is yet sure what specifically prompts the autoimmune response that destroys the body's ability to produce insulin. Etiology of this complex disease combines a genetic predisposition and still (almost) unknown environmental factors that trigger autoimmuninty specifically targeting beta cells. Genetic HLA predispositions are clearly identified. However, only few people with apparent genetic predisposition to type 1 diabetes actually end up getting the disease. Moreover, the remarkable increase of type 1 diabetes prevalence observed in numerous countries can not be explained by genetics. Because genetic factors can't predict alone the development of type 1 diabetes, environmental factors must be involved such as viral infections, toxins from food, cow milk during childhood (instead of breast feeding) or vitamin D deficiency. This paper aims at describing the role of the genetic predisposition and the environmental hypothesis which can be involved in the development of type 1 diabetes. We will conclude by briefly describing clinical trials targeting either the immune response or the potentially toxic environment.

[Renal SGLT2 inhibitors, new agents for the management of type 2 diabetes]. / Inhibiteurs du cotransporteur du glucose SGLT2 rénal pour traiter le diabète de type 2.

Kidney plays a role in glucose homeostasis, not only by its capacity to produce glucose through local gluconeogenesis, but also, and even more important in presence of diabetes, by its capacity to excrete glucose in urine when hyperglycaemia exceeds tubular reabsorption threshold. Such reabsorption depends on sodium-glucose cotransporters-2 (SGLT2), which can be blocked by selective inhibitors. These pharmacological agents augment glucosuria and reduce hyperglycaemia independently of insulin. Some have already proven their efficacy to improve glucose control, in monotherapy or in combination, while promoting weight loss and without inducing hypoglycaemia. Dapagliflozin should be the first medication of this new pharmacological class to be commercialized for the management of type 2 diabetes.

Vitamin D and type 2 diabetes mellitus: where do we stand?

AIMS: In-vitro and observational studies have established a link between vitamin D deficiency and different type 2 diabetes outcomes (insulin resistance, insulin secretion, glucose intolerance). Although the number of randomized controlled trials vs placebo is small, vitamin D (VTD) has been shown to prevent increases in glucose concentration and insulin resistance, enhance insulin sensitivity and reduce systolic blood pressure in type 2 diabetic patients. METHODS: In this review, we have focused on the potential mechanisms that might explain the association between VTD and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). We have also evaluated the different epidemiological and observational studies on the topic, as well as the various interventional studies. RESULTS: Although the in vitro studies appear to be promising in explaining the link between VTD metabolism and T2DM, the results of in vivo studies are conflicting. This could be related to differences in their methodological approaches. CONCLUSION: Although more studies are needed to confirm the role of VTD in the treatment of T2DM, there is nevertheless enough evidence at this time to suggest a need to maintain 25-OH vitamin D levels in T2DM patients around 30 ng/mL over the course of a year.

Continuous glucose monitoring reduces both hypoglycaemia and HbA1c in hypoglycaemia-prone type 1 diabetic patients treated with a portable pump.

AIM: This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) for glucose control in type 1 diabetic patients treated by continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII) and presenting with frequent hypoglycaemic episodes. METHODS: Thirteen patients with type 1 diabetes (diabetes duration: 25±15 years; CSII duration: 5.5±7.0 years), with more than six recorded capillary blood glucose (CBG) values <60 mg/dL, according to their metres for the past 14 days, were offered the permanent use of a CGM device (Guardian RT(®), Medtronic) plus ongoing self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG) for 12 weeks, followed by a 12-week crossover period of SMBG only, or vice versa. Glucose control, determined by recorded 14-day CBG values <60 mg/dL and HbA(1c) levels, and quality of life according to the Diabetes Quality of Life (DQOL) questionnaire, were assessed at baseline, and after 12- and 24-week follow-ups. RESULTS: Four patients withdrew from the study during the first period (of whom three were using CGM). In the nine study completers, the number of low CBG values decreased significantly from 13.9±9.2 to 7.6±6.8 (P=0.011) when patients used CGM, in either the initial or final trial period, while a decrease in HbA(1c) from 8.3±0.7 to 7.7±0.6% (P=0.049) was also observed, in contrast to the absence of any significant differences during the SMBG-only period. DQOL scores were also essentially unaffected. CONCLUSION: This pilot observational study supports the hypothesis that CGM use can significantly improve overall glucose control while reducing hypoglycaemic episodes in hypoglycaemia-prone type 1 diabetic patients treated by CSII.