Epigenetic regulation of major histocompatibility complexes in gastrointestinal malignancies and the potential for clinical interception.

BACKGROUND: Gastrointestinal malignancies encompass a diverse group of cancers that pose significant challenges to global health. The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) plays a pivotal role in immune surveillance, orchestrating the recognition and elimination of tumor cells by the immune system. However, the intricate regulation of MHC gene expression is susceptible to dynamic epigenetic modification, which can influence functionality and pathological outcomes. MAIN BODY: By understanding the epigenetic alterations that drive MHC downregulation, insights are gained into the molecular mechanisms underlying immune escape, tumor progression, and immunotherapy resistance. This systematic review examines the current literature on epigenetic mechanisms that contribute to MHC deregulation in esophageal, gastric, pancreatic, hepatic and colorectal malignancies. Potential clinical implications are discussed of targeting aberrant epigenetic modifications to restore MHC expression and 0 the effectiveness of immunotherapeutic interventions. CONCLUSION: The integration of epigenetic-targeted therapies with immunotherapies holds great potential for improving clinical outcomes in patients with gastrointestinal malignancies and represents a compelling avenue for future research and therapeutic development.

A-Z of Epigenetic Readers: Targeting Alternative Splicing and Histone Modification Variants in Cancer.

Epigenetic 'reader' proteins, which have evolved to interact with specific chromatin modifications, play pivotal roles in gene regulation. There is growing interest in the alternative splicing mechanisms that affect the functionality of such epigenetic readers in cancer etiology. The current review considers how deregulation of epigenetic processes and alternative splicing events contribute to pathophysiology. An A-Z guide of epigenetic readers is provided, delineating the antagonistic 'yin-yang' roles of full-length versus spliced isoforms, where this is known from the literature. The examples discussed underscore the key contributions of epigenetic readers in transcriptional regulation, early development, and cancer. Clinical implications are considered, offering insights into precision oncology and targeted therapies focused on epigenetic readers that have undergone alternative splicing events during disease pathogenesis. This review underscores the fundamental importance of alternative splicing events in the context of epigenetic readers while emphasizing the critical need for improved understanding of functional diversity, regulatory mechanisms, and future therapeutic potential.

Histone Acyl Code in Precision Oncology: Mechanistic Insights from Dietary and Metabolic Factors.

Cancer etiology involves complex interactions between genetic and non-genetic factors, with epigenetic mechanisms serving as key regulators at multiple stages of pathogenesis. Poor dietary habits contribute to cancer predisposition by impacting DNA methylation patterns, non-coding RNA expression, and histone epigenetic landscapes. Histone post-translational modifications (PTMs), including acyl marks, act as a molecular code and play a crucial role in translating changes in cellular metabolism into enduring patterns of gene expression. As cancer cells undergo metabolic reprogramming to support rapid growth and proliferation, nuanced roles have emerged for dietary- and metabolism-derived histone acylation changes in cancer progression. Specific types and mechanisms of histone acylation, beyond the standard acetylation marks, shed light on how dietary metabolites reshape the gut microbiome, influencing the dynamics of histone acyl repertoires. Given the reversible nature of histone PTMs, the corresponding acyl readers, writers, and erasers are discussed in this review in the context of cancer prevention and treatment. The evolving 'acyl code' provides for improved biomarker assessment and clinical validation in cancer diagnosis and prognosis.

Targeting ACE2-BRD4 crosstalk in colorectal cancer and the deregulation of DNA repair and apoptosis.

ACE2 overexpression in colorectal cancer patients might increase susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection. We report that knockdown, forced overexpression, and pharmacologic inhibition in human colon cancer cells targeted ACE2-BRD4 crosstalk to mediate marked changes in DNA damage/repair and apoptosis. In colorectal cancer patients for whom high ACE2 plus high BRD4 expression is predictive of poor survival, pan-BET inhibition would need to consider proviral/antiviral actions of different BET proteins during SARS-CoV-2 infection.

A randomized controlled trial to study the effect of intratracheal and intravenous lignocaine on airway and hemodynamic response during emergence and extubation following general anesthesia.

OBJECTIVE: Intratracheal (IT) and intravenous (IV) lignocaine suppress airway reflex and hemodynamic response during extubation, but studies regarding this are sparse. The primary aim was to compare the effect of IT and IV lignocaine on attenuation of airway reflex to endotracheal extubation and the secondary aim was to compare the hemodynamic responses to extubation, using lignocaine by the two different routes. METHODS: Seventy-five female patients with comparable age, body mass index, and American Society of Anesthesiologists Physical Status undergoing carcinoma breast surgery were randomized into three groups. Group A received 2% lignocaine 3 mg/kg intratracheally 5 min and Group B received 2% lignocaine 1.5 mg/kg intravenously 3 min before extubation. Group C was control group. The airway and hemodynamic responses were noted in terms of episodes of cough during emergence and extubation. Categorical variables assessed using Fisher's exact test and continuous variables assessed using one-way analysis of variance. RESULTS: Cough suppression was present in Groups A and B, with better results observed with IT than with IV lignocaine. In the control group, Grade III cough reflex was present predominantly. There was a statistically significant difference (p<0.001) in blood pressure and heart rate between Group A versus Group C and in Group B versus Group C, but not between Group A and Group B. CONCLUSION: IT lignocaine administered before extubation significantly attenuates post-extubation cough reflex than IV lignocaine. Both IT and IV lignocaine can effectively attenuate the airway and hemodynamic response to extubation.

BRD9 Inhibition by Natural Polyphenols Targets DNA Damage/Repair and Apoptosis in Human Colon Cancer Cells.

Epigenetic mechanisms play an important role in the etiology of colorectal cancer (CRC) and other malignancies due, in part, to deregulated bromodomain (BRD) functions. Inhibitors of the bromodomain and extraterminal (BET) family have entered into clinical trials as anticancer agents, and interest has grown in other acetyl 'reader' proteins as therapeutic targets, including non-BET member bromodomain-containing protein 9 (BRD9). We report here that overexpression of BRD9 is associated with poor prognosis in CRC patients, and that siRNA-mediated knockdown of BRD9 decreased cell viability and activated apoptosis in human colon cancer cells, coincident with increased DNA damage. Seeking natural compounds as BRD9 antagonists, molecular docking in silico identified several polyphenols such as Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), Equol, Quercetin, and Aspalathin, with favorable binding energies, supported by BROMOscan® (DiscoverX) and isothermal titration calorimetry experiments. Polyphenols mimicked BRD9 knockdown and iBRD9 treatment in reducing colon cancer cell viability, inhibiting colony formation, and enhancing DNA damage and apoptosis. Normal colonic epithelial cells were unaffected, signifying cancer-specific effects. These findings suggest that natural polyphenols recognize and target BRD9 for inhibition, and might serve as useful lead compounds for bromodomain therapeutics in the clinical setting.

Metabolomics of Acute vs. Chronic Spinach Intake in an Apc-Mutant Genetic Background: Linoleate and Butanoate Metabolites Targeting HDAC Activity and IFN-γ Signaling.

There is growing interest in the crosstalk between the gut microbiome, host metabolomic features, and disease pathogenesis. The current investigation compared long-term (26 week) and acute (3 day) dietary spinach intake in a genetic model of colorectal cancer. Metabolomic analyses in the polyposis in rat colon (Pirc) model and in wild-type animals corroborated key contributions to anticancer outcomes by spinach-derived linoleate bioactives and a butanoate metabolite linked to increased α-diversity of the gut microbiome. Combining linoleate and butanoate metabolites in human colon cancer cells revealed enhanced apoptosis and reduced cell viability, paralleling the apoptosis induction in colon tumors from rats given long-term spinach treatment. Mechanistic studies in cell-based assays and in vivo implicated the linoleate and butanoate metabolites in targeting histone deacetylase (HDAC) activity and the interferon-γ (IFN-γ) signaling axis. Clinical translation of these findings to at-risk patients might provide valuable quality-of-life benefits by delaying surgical interventions and drug therapies with adverse side effects.

Deacetylase Plus Bromodomain Inhibition Downregulates ERCC2 and Suppresses the Growth of Metastatic Colon Cancer Cells.

There is growing evidence that DNA repair factors have clinical value for cancer treatment. Nucleotide excision repair (NER) proteins, including excision repair cross-complementation group 2 (ERCC2), play a critical role in maintaining genome integrity. Here, we examined ERCC2 expression following epigenetic combination drug treatment. Attention was drawn to ERCC2 for three reasons. First, from online databases, colorectal cancer (CRC) patients exhibited significantly reduced survival when ERCC2 was overexpressed in colon tumors. Second, ERCC2 was the most highly downregulated RNA transcript in human colon cancer cells, plus Ercc2 in rat tumors, after treatment with the histone deacetylase 3 (HDAC3) inhibitor sulforaphane (SFN) plus JQ1, which is an inhibitor of the bromodomain and extraterminal domain (BET) family. Third, as reported here, RNA-sequencing of polyposis in rat colon (Pirc) polyps following treatment of rats with JQ1 plus 6-methylsulfinylhexyl isothiocyanate (6-SFN) identified Ercc2 as the most highly downregulated gene. The current work also defined promising second-generation epigenetic drug combinations with enhanced synergy and efficacy, especially in metastasis-lineage colon cancer cells cultured as 3D spheroids and xenografts. This investigation adds to the growing interest in combination approaches that target epigenetic 'readers', 'writers', and 'erasers' that are deregulated in cancer and other pathologies, providing new avenues for precision oncology and cancer interception.

Optimization of Erlotinib Plus Sulindac Dosing Regimens for Intestinal Cancer Prevention in an Apc-Mutant Model of Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP).

A clinical trial in patients with familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) demonstrated that sulindac plus erlotinib (SUL+ERL) had good efficacy in the duodenum and colon, but toxicity issues raised concerns for long-term prevention. We performed a biomarker study in the polyposis in rat colon (Pirc) model, observing phosphorylated Erk inhibition in colon polyps for up to 10 days after discontinuing ERL+SUL administration. In a follow-up study lasting 16 weeks, significant reduction of colon and small intestine (SI) tumor burden was detected, especially in rats given 250 ppm SUL in the diet plus once-a-week intragastric dosing of ERL at 21 or 42 mg/kg body weight (BW). A long-term study further demonstrated antitumor efficacy in the colon and SI at 52 weeks, when 250 ppm SUL was combined with once-a-week intragastric administration of ERL at 10, 21, or 42 mg/kg BW. Tumor-associated matrix metalloproteinase-7 (Mmp7), tumor necrosis factor (Tnf), and early growth response 1 (Egr1) were decreased at 16 weeks by ERL+SUL, and this was sustained in the long-term study for Mmp7 and Tnf. Based on the collective results, the optimal dose combination of ERL 10 mg/kg BW plus 250 ppm SUL lacked toxicity, inhibited molecular biomarkers, and exhibited effective antitumor activity. We conclude that switching from continuous to once-per-week ERL, given at one-quarter of the current therapeutic dose, will exert good efficacy with standard-of-care SUL against adenomatous polyps in the colon and SI, with clinical relevance for patients with FAP before or after colectomy. PREVENTION RELEVANCE: This investigation concludes that switching from continuous to once-per-week erlotinib, given at one-quarter of the current therapeutic dose, will exert good efficacy with standard-of-care sulindac against adenomatous polyps in the colon and small intestine, with clinical relevance for patients with FAP before or after colectomy.

Targeting Epigenetic 'Readers' with Natural Compounds for Cancer Interception.

Natural compounds from diverse sources, including botanicals and commonly consumed foods and beverages, exert beneficial health effects via mechanisms that impact the epigenome and gene expression during disease pathogenesis. By targeting the so-called epigenetic 'readers', 'writers', and 'erasers', dietary phytochemicals can reverse abnormal epigenome signatures in cancer cells and preneoplastic stages. Thus, such agents provide avenues for cancer interception via prevention or treatment/therapeutic strategies. To date, much of the focus on dietary agents has been directed towards writers (e.g., histone acetyltransferases) and erasers (e.g., histone deacetylases), with less attention given to epigenetic readers (e.g., BRD proteins). The drug JQ1 was developed as a prototype epigenetic reader inhibitor, selectively targeting members of the bromodomain and extraterminal domain (BET) family, such as BRD4. Clinical trials with JQ1 as a single agent, or in combination with standard of care therapy, revealed antitumor efficacy but not without toxicity or resistance. In pursuit of second-generation epigenetic reader inhibitors, attention has shifted to natural sources, including dietary agents that might be repurposed as 'JQ1-like' bioactives. This review summarizes the current status of nascent research activity focused on natural compounds as inhibitors of BET and other epigenetic 'reader' proteins, with a perspective on future directions and opportunities.

CCAR1 and CCAR2 as gene chameleons with antagonistic duality: Preclinical, human translational, and mechanistic basis.

Cell Cycle and Apoptosis Regulator 1 (CCAR1) and Cell Cycle and Apoptosis Regulator 2 (CCAR2) have emerged as key players in physiology and pathophysiology, with critical roles in the DNA damage response, nuclear receptor function, and Wnt signaling, among other activities. Contradictory reports exist on the functional duality of CCAR1 and CCAR2 as either tumor promoters or suppressors, suggesting that CCAR1 and CCAR2 have the hallmarks of gene chameleons. We review herein the mechanistic, preclinical, and human translational findings for CCAR1 and CCAR2, based on available RNA and protein expression data from human studies, The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) data mining, gene knockout mouse models, and cell-based assays. Multiple factors contribute to the divergent activities of CCAR1 and CCAR2, including tissue type, mutation/genetic background, protein-protein interactions, dynamic regulation via posttranslational modifications, and alternative RNA splicing. An array of protein partners interact with CCAR1 and CCAR2 in the context of tumor promotion and suppression, including ß-catenin, androgen receptor, p21Cip1/Waf1, tumor protein p53 (p53), sirtuin 1, and histone deacetylase 3. Genetic changes frequently found in cancer, such as TP53 mutation, also serve as critical determinants of survival outcomes in cancer patients. This review seeks to provide the impetus for further investigation into CCAR1 and CCAR2 as potential master regulators of metabolism, aging, and cancer.

Acetylation of CCAR2 Establishes a BET/BRD9 Acetyl Switch in Response to Combined Deacetylase and Bromodomain Inhibition.

There continues to be interest in targeting epigenetic "readers, writers, and erasers" for the treatment of cancer and other pathologies. However, a mechanistic understanding is frequently lacking for the synergy observed when combining deacetylase and bromodomain inhibitors. Here we identify cell cycle and apoptosis regulator 2 (CCAR2) as an early target for acetylation in colon cancer cells treated with sulforaphane. N-terminal acetylation of CCAR2 diminished its interactions with histone deacetylase 3 and ß-catenin, interfering with Wnt coactivator functions of CCAR2, including in cells harboring genetically encoded CCAR2 acetylation. Protein domain arrays and pull-down assays identified acetyl "reader" proteins that recognized CCAR2 acetylation sites, including BRD9 and members of the bromodomain and extraterminal domain (BET) family. Treatment with the BET inhibitor JQ1 synergized with sulforaphane in colon cancer cells and suppressed tumor development effectively in a preclinical model of colorectal cancer. Studies with sulforaphane+JQ1 in combination implicated a BET/BRD9 acetyl switch and a shift in the pool of acetyl "reader" proteins in favor of BRD9-regulated target genes. SIGNIFICANCE: These results highlight the competition that exists among the "readers" of acetylated histone and nonhistone proteins and provide a mechanistic basis for potential new therapeutic avenues involving epigenetic combination treatments.

Heterocyclic Analogs of Sulforaphane Trigger DNA Damage and Impede DNA Repair in Colon Cancer Cells: Interplay of HATs and HDACs.

SCOPE: DNA repair inhibitors have broad clinical applications in tumor types with DNA repair defects, including colorectal cancer (CRC). Structural analogs of the anticancer agent sulforaphane (SFN) were investigated as modifiers of histone deacetylase (HDAC) and histone acetyltransferase (HAT) activity, and for effects on DNA damage/repair pertinent to human CRC. METHODS AND RESULTS: In the polyposis in rat colon (Pirc) model, single oral administration of SFN and structurally related long-chain isothiocyanates (ITCs) decreased histone deacetylase 3 (HDAC3) expression and increased pH2AX levels markedly in adenomatous colon polyps, extending prior observations on HDAC3 inhibition/turnover in cell-based assays. Colon cancer cells at a high initial plating density had diminished cytotoxicity from SFN, whereas novel tetrazole-containing heterocyclic analogs of SFN retained their efficacy. The potent SFN analogs triggered DNA damage, cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, and loss of a key DNA repair regulator, C-terminal binding protein (CtBP) interacting protein (CtIP). These SFN analogs also altered HAT/HDAC activities and histone acetylation status, lowered the expression of HDAC3, P300/CBP-associated factor (PCAF) and lysine acetyltransferase 2A (KAT2A/GCN5), and attenuated homologous recombination (HR)/non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) repair activities in colon cancer cells. CONCLUSION: Novel tetrazole-containing heterocyclic analogs of SFN provide a new avenue for chemosensitization in colon cancer cells via modulation of HAT/HDAC activities and associated DNA damage/repair signaling pathways.

Oncogenic targets Mmp7, S100a9, Nppb and Aldh1a3 from transcriptome profiling of FAP and Pirc adenomas are downregulated in response to tumor suppression by Clotam.

Intervention strategies in familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) patients and other high-risk colorectal cancer (CRC) populations have highlighted a critical need for endoscopy combined with safe and effective preventive agents. We performed transcriptome profiling of colorectal adenomas from FAP patients and the polyposis in rat colon (Pirc) preclinical model, and prioritized molecular targets for prevention studies in vivo. At clinically relevant doses in the Pirc model, the drug Clotam (tolfenamic acid, TA) was highly effective at suppressing tumorigenesis both in the colon and in the small intestine, when administered alone or in combination with Sulindac. Cell proliferation in the colonic crypts was reduced significantly by TA, coincident with increased cleaved caspase-3 and decreased Survivin, ß-catenin, cyclin D1 and matrix metalloproteinase 7. From the list of differentially expressed genes prioritized by transcriptome profiling, Mmp7, S100a9, Nppb and Aldh1a3 were defined as key oncogene candidates downregulated in colon tumors after TA treatment. Monthly colonoscopies revealed the rapid onset of tumor suppression by TA in the Pirc model, and the temporal changes in Mmp7, S100a9, Nppb and Aldh1a3, highlighting their value as potential early biomarkers for prevention in the clinical setting. We conclude that TA, an "old drug" repurposed from migraine, offers an exciting new therapeutic avenue in FAP and other high-risk CRC patient populations.

A functional pseudogene, NMRAL2P, is regulated by Nrf2 and serves as a coactivator of NQO1 in sulforaphane-treated colon cancer cells.

SCOPE: The anticancer agent sulforaphane (SFN) acts via multiple mechanisms to modulate gene expression, including the induction of nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2)-dependent signaling and the inhibition of histone deacetylase activity. Transcriptomics studies were performed in SFN-treated human colon cancer cells and in nontransformed colonic epithelial cells in order to pursue new mechanistic leads. METHODS AND RESULTS: RNA-sequencing corroborated the expected changes in cancer-related pathways after SFN treatment. In addition to NAD(P)H quinone dehydrogenase 1 (NQO1) and other well-known Nrf2-dependent targets, SFN strongly induced the expression of Loc344887. This noncoding RNA was confirmed as a novel functional pseudogene for NmrA-like redox sensor 1, and was given the name NmrA-like redox sensor 2 pseudogene (NMRAL2P). Chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments corroborated the presence of Nrf2 interactions on the NMRAL2P genomic region, and interestingly, NMRAL2P also served as a coregulator of NQO1 in human colon cancer cells. Silencing of NMRAL2P via CRISPR/Cas9 genome-editing protected against SFN-mediated inhibition of cancer cell growth, colony formation, and migration. CONCLUSION: NMRAL2P is the first functional pseudogene to be identified both as a direct transcriptional target of Nrf2, and as a downstream regulator of Nrf2-dependent NQO1 induction. Further studies are warranted on NMRAL2P-Nrf2 crosstalk and the associated mechanisms of gene regulation.

Histone and Non-Histone Targets of Dietary Deacetylase Inhibitors.

Acetylation is an important, reversible post-translational modification affecting histone and non-histone proteins with critical roles in gene transcription, DNA replication, DNA repair, and cell cycle progression. Key regulatory enzymes include histone deacetylase (HDACs) and histone acetyltransferases (HATs). Overexpressed HDACs have been identified in many human cancers, resulting in repressed chromatin states that interfere with vital tumor suppressor functions. Inhibition of HDAC activity has been pursued as a mechanism for re-activating repressed genes in cancers, with some HDAC inhibitors showing promise in the clinical setting. Dietary compounds and their metabolites also have been shown to modulate HDAC activity or expression. Out of this body of research, attention increasingly has shifted towards non-histone targets of HDACs and HATs, such as transcriptions factors, hormone receptors, DNA repair proteins, and cytoskeletal components. These aspects are covered in present review, along with the possible clinical significance. Where such data are available, examples are cited from the literature of studies with short chain fatty acids, polyphenols, isoflavones, indoles, organosulfur compounds, organoselenium compounds, sesquiterpene lactones, isoflavones, and various miscellaneous agents. By virtue of their effects on both histone and non-histone proteins, dietary chemopreventive agents modulate the cellular acetylome in ways that are only now becoming apparent. A better understanding of the molecular mechanisms will likely enhance the potential to more effectively combat diseases harboring altered epigenetic landscapes and dysregulated protein signaling.

Development of a murine colonoscopic polypectomy model (with videos).

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Colonoscopy provides a means for screening and removal of colon adenomas, preventing such lesions from progressing to late-stage carcinoma. No preclinical model currently exists that closely parallels the clinical scenario with respect to polyp resection and recovery after endoscopy. METHODS: When we used the polyposis in rat colon (Pirc) model, a new polypectomy methodology was developed. A novel PLC classification system (polyp number/location/clockwise orientation) also was devised in order to accurately and reproducibly specify the location of each lesion within the colon. RESULTS: One week after surgery, injuries to the polypectomy site were confined to the submucosa, indicating that little or no damage occurred to the inner muscle layer of the colon. Polypectomy sites occasionally continued to show ulcer formation, whereas others exhibited tissue regeneration. A pilot study (n = 6 animals), involving a total of 37 polypectomies, confirmed that the new methodology could be applied by using either air insufflation or water-assisted techniques, with either hot or cold snare. As a general observation, polyps tended to be more fully distended and less flattened against the colon mucosa by using the water-assisted protocol, increasing the technical ease of ensnaring and resecting lesions. The PLC system proved to be straightforward and facilitated longitudinal studies by allowing the investigator to track each polypectomy site on repeated examination. CONCLUSIONS: The Pirc model was ideally suited to colonoscopy with polypectomy. Because the main cause of morbidity in the Pirc model is blockage of the colon, polypectomy can be used as a preventive strategy and will likely facilitate long-term investigations of single agent and combination therapies with potential direct clinical relevance.

Orally available stilbene derivatives as potent HDAC inhibitors with antiproliferative activities and antitumor effects in human tumor xenografts.

Herein we report the synthesis and activity of a novel class of HDAC inhibitors based on 2, 3-diphenyl acrylic acid derivatives. The compounds in this series have shown to be potent HDAC inhibitors possessing significant antiproliferative activity. Further compounds in this series were subjected to metabolic stability in human liver microsomes (HLM), mouse liver microsomes (MLM), and exhibits promising stability in both. These efforts culminated with the identification of a developmental candidate (5a), which displayed desirable PK/PD relationships, significant efficacy in the xenograft models and attractive ADME profiles.

Nrf2 status affects tumor growth, HDAC3 gene promoter associations, and the response to sulforaphane in the colon.

BACKGROUND: The dietary agent sulforaphane (SFN) has been reported to induce nuclear factor erythroid 2 (NF-E2)-related factor 2 (Nrf2)-dependent pathways as well as inhibiting histone deacetylase (HDAC) activity. The current investigation sought to examine the relationships between Nrf2 status and HDAC expression in preclinical and translational studies. RESULTS: Wild type (WT) and Nrf2-deficient (Nrf2(-/+)) mice were treated with the colon carcinogen 1,2-dimethylhydrazine (DMH) followed by 400 ppm SFN in the diet (n = 35 mice/group). WT mice were more susceptible than Nrf2(-/+) mice to tumor induction in the colon. Tumors from WT mice had higher HDAC levels globally and locally on genes such as cyclin-dependant kinase inhibitor 2a (Cdkn2a/p16) that were dysregulated during tumor development. The average tumor burden was reduced by SFN from 62.7 to 26.0 mm(3) in WT mice and from 14.6 to 11.7 mm(3) in Nrf2(-/+) mice. The decreased antitumor activity of SFN in Nrf2(-/+) mice coincided with attenuated Cdkn2a promoter interactions involving HDAC3. HDAC3 knockdown in human colon cancer cells recapitulated the effects of SFN on p16 induction. Human subjects given a broccoli sprout extract supplement (200 µmol SFN equivalents), or reporting more than five cruciferous vegetable servings per week, had increased p16 expression that was inversely associated with HDAC3 in circulating peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and in biopsies obtained during screening colonoscopy. CONCLUSIONS: Nrf2 expression varies widely in both normal human colon and human colon cancers and likely contributes to the overall rate of tumor growth in the large intestine. It remains to be determined whether this influences global HDAC protein expression levels, as well as local HDAC interactions on genes dysregulated during human colon tumor development. If corroborated in future studies, Nrf2 status might serve as a biomarker of HDAC inhibitor efficacy in clinical trials using single agent or combination modalities to slow, halt, or regress the progression to later stages of solid tumors and hematological malignancies.

Quinolone-based HDAC inhibitors.

HDAC inhibitors emerged as promising drug candidates in combating wide variety of cancers. At present, two of the compounds SAHA and Romidepsin were approved by FDA for cutaneous T-cell lymphoma and many are in various clinical phases. A new quinolone cap structure was explored with hydroxamic acid as zinc-binding group (ZBG). The pan HDAC inhibitory and antiproliferative activities against three human cancer cell lines HCT-116 (colon), NCI-H460 (lung) and U251 (glioblastoma) of the compounds (4a-4w) were evaluated. Introduction of heterocyclic amines in CAP region increased the enzyme inhibitory and antiproliferative activities and few of the compounds tested are metabolically stable in both MLM and HLM.