New Origins of Yeast, Plant and Bacterial-Derived Extracellular Vesicles to Expand and Advance Compound Delivery.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) constitute a sophisticated molecular exchange mechanism highly regarded for their potential as a next-generation platform for compound delivery. However, identifying sustainable and biologically safe sources of EVs remains a challenge. This work explores the emergence of novel sources of plant and bacterial-based EVs, such as those obtained from food industry by-products, known as BP-EVs, and their potential to be used as safer and biocompatible nanocarriers, addressing some of the current challenges of the field. These novel sources exhibit remarkable oral bioavailability and biodistribution, with minimal cytotoxicity and a selective targeting capacity toward the central nervous system, liver, and skeletal tissues. Additionally, we review the ease of editing these recently uncovered nanocarrier-oriented vesicles using common EV editing methods, examining the cargo-loading processes applicable to these sources, which involve both passive and active functionalization methods. While the primary focus of these novel sources of endogenous EVs is on molecule delivery to the central nervous system and skeletal tissue based on their systemic target preference, their use, as reviewed here, extends beyond these key applications within the biotechnological and biomedical fields.

Permissive epigenetic regulatory mechanisms at the histone level are enhanced in postmortem dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of individuals with schizophrenia.

BACKGROUND: Susceptibility to schizophrenia is determined by interactions between genes and environment, possibly via epigenetic mechanisms. Schizophrenia has been associated with a restrictive epigenome, and histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors have been postulated as coadjuvant agents to potentiate the efficacy of current antipsychotic drugs. We aimed to evaluate global histone posttranslational modifications (HPTMs) and HDAC expression and activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) of individuals with schizophrenia. METHODS: We used postmortem DLPFC samples of individuals with schizophrenia and controls matched for sex, age, and postmortem interval. Schizophrenia samples were classified into antipsychotic-treated or antipsychotic-free subgroups according to blood toxicology. Expression of HPTMs and HDAC was quantified by Western blot. HDAC activity was measured with a fluorometric assay. RESULTS: H3K9ac, H3K27ac, and H3K4me3 were globally enhanced in the DLPFC of individuals with schizophrenia (+24%-42%, p < 0.05). HDAC activity (-17%, p < 0.01) and HDAC4 protein expression (-20%, p < 0.05) were downregulated in individuals with schizophrenia. Analyses of antipsychotic-free and antipsychotic-treated subgroups revealed enhanced H3K4me3 and H3K27ac (+24%-49%, p < 0.05) and reduced HDAC activity in the antipsychotic-treated, but not in the antipsychotic-free subgroup. LIMITATIONS: Special care was taken to control the effect of confounding factors: age, sex, postmortem interval, and storage time. However, replication studies in bigger cohorts might strengthen the association between permissive HPTMs and schizophrenia. CONCLUSION: We found global HPTM alterations consistent with an aberrantly permissive epigenome in schizophrenia. Further studies to elucidate the significance of enhanced permissive HPTMs in schizophrenia and its association with the mechanism of action of antipsychotic drugs are encouraged.

Effect of antipsychotic drugs on group II metabotropic glutamate receptor expression and epigenetic control in postmortem brains of schizophrenia subjects.

Antipsychotic-induced low availability of group II metabotropic glutamate receptors (including mGlu2R and mGlu3R) in brains of schizophrenia patients may explain the limited efficacy of mGlu2/3R ligands in clinical trials. Studies evaluating mGlu2/3R levels in well-designed, large postmortem brain cohorts are needed to address this issue. Postmortem samples from the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of 96 schizophrenia subjects and matched controls were collected. Toxicological analyses identified cases who were (AP+) or were not (AP-) receiving antipsychotic treatment near the time of death. Protein and mRNA levels of mGlu2R and mGlu3R, as well as GRM2 and GRM3 promoter-attached histone posttranslational modifications, were quantified. Experimental animal models were used to compare with data obtained in human tissues. Compared to matched controls, schizophrenia cortical samples had lower mGlu2R protein amounts, regardless of antipsychotic medication. Downregulation of mGlu3R was observed in AP- schizophrenia subjects only. Greater predicted occupancy values of dopamine D2 and serotonin 5HT2A receptors correlated with higher density of mGlu3R, but not mGlu2R. Clozapine treatment and maternal immune activation in rodents mimicked the mGlu2R, but not mGlu3R regulation observed in schizophrenia brains. mGlu2R and mGlu3R mRNA levels, and the epigenetic control mechanisms did not parallel the alterations at the protein level, and in some groups correlated inversely. Insufficient cortical availability of mGlu2R and mGlu3R may be associated with schizophrenia. Antipsychotic treatment may normalize mGlu3R, but not mGlu2R protein levels. A model in which epigenetic feedback mechanisms controlling mGlu3R expression are activated to counterbalance mGluR loss of function is described.

Next-Generation Proteomics of Brain Extracellular Vesicles in Schizophrenia Provide New Clues on the Altered Molecular Connectome.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are tiny membranous structures that mediate intercellular communication. The role(s) of these vesicles have been widely investigated in the context of neurological diseases; however, their potential implications in the neuropathology subjacent to human psychiatric disorders remain mostly unknown. Here, by using next-generation discovery-driven proteomics, we investigate the potential role(s) of brain EVs (bEVs) in schizophrenia (SZ) by analyzing these vesicles from the three post-mortem anatomical brain regions: the prefrontal cortex (PFC), hippocampus (HC), and caudate (CAU). The results obtained indicate that bEVs from SZ-affected brains contain region-specific proteins that are associated with abnormal GABAergic and glutamatergic transmission. Similarly, these vesicles from the analyzed regions were implicated in synaptic decay, abnormal brain immunity, neuron structural imbalances, and impaired cell homeostasis. Our findings also provide evidence, for the first time, that networks of molecular exchange (involving the PFC, HC, and CAU) are potentially active and mediated by EVs in non-diseased brains. Additionally, these bEV-mediated networks seem to have become partially reversed and largely disrupted in the brains of subjects affected by SZ. Taken as a whole, these results open the door to the uncovering of new biological markers and therapeutic targets, based on the compositions of bEVs, for the benefit of patients affected by SZ and related psychotic disorders.

Regulation of Cortico-Thalamic JNK1/2 and ERK1/2 MAPKs and Apoptosis-Related Signaling Pathways in PDYN Gene-Deficient Mice Following Acute and Chronic Mild Stress.

The crosstalk between the opioidergic system and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) has a critical role in mediating stress-induced behaviors related to the pathophysiology of anxiety. The present study evaluated the basal status and stress-induced alterations of cortico-thalamic MAPKs and other cell fate-related signaling pathways potentially underlying the anxiogenic endophenotype of PDYN gene-deficient mice. Compared to littermates, PDYN knockout (KO) mice had lower cortical and or thalamic amounts of the phospho-activated MAPKs c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK1/2) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2). Similarly, PDYN-KO animals displayed reduced cortico-thalamic densities of total and phosphorylated (at Ser191) species of the cell fate regulator Fas-associated protein with death domain (FADD) without alterations in the Fas receptor. Exposure to acute restraint and chronic mild stress stimuli induced the robust stimulation of JNK1/2 and ERK1/2 MAPKs, FADD, and Akt-mTOR pathways, without apparent increases in apoptotic rates. Interestingly, PDYN deficiency prevented stress-induced JNK1/2 and FADD but not ERK1/2 or Akt-mTOR hyperactivations. These findings suggest that cortico-thalamic MAPK- and FADD-dependent neuroplasticity might be altered in PDYN-KO mice. In addition, the results also indicate that the PDYN gene (and hence dynorphin release) may be required to stimulate JNK1/2 and FADD (but not ERK1/2 or Akt/mTOR) pathways under environmental stress conditions.

Late-life physical activity relates to brain tissue synaptic integrity markers in older adults.

INTRODUCTION: Physical activity (PA) is widely recommended for age-related brain health, yet its neurobiology is not well understood. Animal models indicate PA is synaptogenic. We examined the relationship between PA and synaptic integrity markers in older adults. METHODS: Four hundred four decedents from the Rush Memory and Aging Project completed annual actigraphy monitoring (Mean visits = 3.5±2.4) and post mortem evaluation. Brain tissue was analyzed for presynaptic proteins (synaptophysin, synaptotagmin-1, vesicle-associated membrane proteins, syntaxin, complexin-I, and complexin-II), and neuropathology. Models examined relationships between late-life PA (averaged across visits), and timing-specific PA (time to autopsy) with synaptic proteins. RESULTS: Greater late-life PA associated with higher presynaptic protein levels (0.14 < ß < 0.20), except complexin-II (ß = 0.08). Relationships were independent of pathology but timing specific; participants who completed actigraphy within 2 years of brain tissue measurements showed largest PA-to-synaptic protein associations (0.32 < ß < 0.38). Relationships between PA and presynaptic proteins were comparable across brain regions sampled. DISCUSSION: PA associates with synaptic integrity in a regionally global, but time-linked nature in older adults.

Proteomic identification of select protein variants of the SNARE interactome associated with cognitive reserve in a large community sample.

Age-related neuropathologies progressively impair cognitive abilities by damaging synaptic function. We aimed to identify key components within the presynaptic SNARE (soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor) machinery associated with cognitive performance and estimate their potential contribution to brain reserve in old age. We used targeted SRM proteomics to quantify amounts of 60 peptides, encoded in 30 different genes, in postmortem specimens of the prefrontal cortex from 1209 participants of two aging studies, with available antemortem cognitive evaluations and postmortem neuropathologic assessments. We found that select (but not all) proteoforms are strongly associated with cognitive function and the burden of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology. Specifically, greater abundance of STX1A (but not other syntaxins), SYT12, full-length SNAP25, and the GABAergic STXBP1 variant were robustly associated with better cognitive performance. By contrast, greater abundance of other presynaptic proteins (e.g., STXBP5 or tomosyn, STX7, or SYN2) showed a negative influence on cognition. Regression models adjusting for demographic and pathologic variables showed that altered levels of these protein species explained 7.7% additional between-subject variance in cognition (more than any individual age-related neuropathology in the model), suggesting that these molecules constitute key elements of brain reserve. Network analyses indicated that those peptides associated with brain reserve, and closest to the SNARE fusogenic activity, showed greater centrality measures and were better connected in the network. Validation assays confirmed the selective loss of the STX1A (but not STX1B) isoform in cognitively impaired cases. In rodent and human brains, STX1A was selectively located at glutamatergic terminals. However, in AD brains, STX1A was redistributed adjacent to neuritic pathology, and markedly expressed in astrocytes. Our study provides strong evidence, indicating that select presynaptic proteins are key in maintaining brain reserve. Compromised ability to sustain expression levels of these proteins may trigger synaptic dysfunction and concomitant cognitive impairment.

Effects of Gαi2 and Gαz protein knockdown on alpha2A-adrenergic and cannabinoid CB1 receptor regulation of MEK-ERK and FADD pathways in mouse cerebral cortex.

BACKGROUND: Alpha2A-adrenergic (α2A-AR) and cannabinoid CB1 (CB1-R) receptors exert their functions modulating multiple signaling pathways, including MEK-ERK (extracellular signal-regulated kinases) and FADD (Fas-associated protein with death domain) cascades. These molecules are relevant in finding biased agonists with fewer side effects, but the mechanisms involving their modulations by α2A-AR- and CB1-R in vivo are unclear. This study investigated the roles of Gαi2 and Gαz proteins in mediating α2A-AR- and CB1-R-induced alterations of MEK-ERK and FADD phosphorylation (p-) in mouse brain cortex. METHODS: Gαi2 or Gαz protein knockdown was induced in mice with selective antisense oligodeoxinucleotides (ODNs; 3 nmol/day, 5 days) prior to UK-14,304 (UK or brimonidine; 1 mg/kg) or WIN55212-2 (WIN; 8 mg/kg) acute treatments. Inactivated (p-T286) MEK1, activated (p-S217/221) MEK1/2, activated (p-T202/Y204) ERK1/2, p-S191 FADD, and the corresponding total forms of these proteins were quantified by immunoblotting. RESULTS: Increased (+ 88%) p-T286 MEK1 cortical density, with a concomitant reduction (-43%) of activated ERK was observed in UK-treated mice. Both effects were attenuated by Gαi2 or Gαz antisense ODNs. Contrastingly, WIN induced Gαi2- and Gαz-independent upregulations of p-T286 MEK1 (+ 63%), p-S217/221 MEK1/2 (+ 86%), and activated ERK (+ 111%) in brain. Pro-apoptotic FADD was downregulated (- 34 to 39%) following UK and WIN administration, whereas the neuroprotective p-S191 FADD was increased (+ 74%) in WIN-treated mice only. None of these latter effects required from Gαi2 or Gαz protein integrity. CONCLUSION: The results indicate that α2A-AR (UK), but not CB1-R (WIN), agonists use Gαi2 and Gαz proteins to modulate MEK-ERK, but not FADD, pathway in mouse brain cortex.

Prefrontal fatty acid composition in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: Association with reelin expression.

OBJECTIVE: The extracellular matrix protein reelin regulates early brain development and synaptic plasticity in adulthood. Reelin is decreased in the postmortem brain in schizophrenia patients. Reelin's two receptors, ApoER2 and VLDLR, are also substrates for ApoE - a key lipoprotein that regulates phospholipid homeostasis in the brain. The goal of the present study was therefore to examine phospholipids and their constituent fatty acids, and determine whether there is an association between reelin, its receptors and phospholipids in the brain. METHODS: Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (BA9) grey matter was obtained from the Stanley Foundation Neuropathology Consortium. Samples included tissue from 35 controls, 35 schizophrenia and 34 bipolar disorder patients. Phospholipids were measured using gas liquid chromatography. RESULTS: We quantified 15 individual fatty acid or plasmalogen species for phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylcholine fractions, each comprising >0.5% of the total fatty acid pool. There were no group differences in phospholipids or individual fatty acid species after correcting for multiple comparisons. However, for the entire cohort, both the polyunsaturated subclass of fatty acids, and ApoE, correlated significantly with reelin expression, with a number of individual ω-6 fatty acid species also demonstrating a significant positive correlation. There was a non-significant trend for similar effects with VLDLR expression as for reelin. CONCLUSION: Phospholipids and fatty acids in the dorsolateral cortex do not differ in patients with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and controls. Reelin expression in this brain region is associated with polyunsaturated fatty acids and ApoE, suggesting further study of potential physiological interactions between these substrates is warranted.

The synaptic pathology of cognitive life
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Prospective, community-based studies allow evaluation of associations between cognitive functioning and synaptic measures, controlled for age-related pathologies. Findings from >400 community-based participants are reviewed. Levels of two presynaptic proteins, complexin-I (inhibitory terminals), and complexin-II (excitatory terminals) contributed to cognitive variation from normal to dementia. Adding the amount of protein-protein interaction between two others, synaptosome-associated protein-25 and syntaxin, explained 6% of overall variance. The presynaptic protein Munc18-1 long variant was localized to inhibitory terminals, and like complexin-I, was positively associated with cognition. Associations depended on Braak stage, with the level of complexin-I contributing nearly 15% to cognitive variation in stages 0-II, while complexin-II contributed 7% in stages V-VI. Non-denaturing gels identified multiple soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor protein-protein (SNARE) complexes in frontal and in temporal lobes, making specific contributions to cognitive functions. Multiple mechanisms of presynaptic plasticity contribute to cognitive function during aging.
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Los estudios prospectivos realizados en la comunidad permiten evaluar las asociaciones entre el funcionamiento cognitivo y las mediciones sinápticas, controladas por patologías relacionadas con la edad. Se revisan los hallazgos de más de 400 participantes de la comunidad. Los niveles de dos proteínas presinápticas, complexina-I (terminales inhibitorios) y complexina-II (terminales excitatorios) contribuyeron a la variación cognitiva entre la situación normal y la demencia. Al agregar la interacción proteína-proteína entre la proteína 25 asociada al sinaptosoma y la sintaxina, se explicó el 6% de la varianza general. La variante larga de la proteína presináptica Munc 18-1 se localizó en terminales inhibitorios y, al igual que la complexina I, se asoció positivamente con la cognición. Las asociaciones dependían de la etapa de Braak, siendo el nivel de complexina-I responsable de casi el 15% de la variación cognitiva para las etapas 0-II, mientras que la complexina-II contribuyó con el 7% en las etapas V-VI. Los geles no desnaturalizantes identificaron múltiples complejos de proteína-proteína del receptor de proteína de unión al factor sensible a N-etilmaleimida soluble (SNARE) en los lóbulos frontales y temporales, los cuales contribuyen de manera específica a las funciones cognitivas. Durante el envejecimiento participan múltiples mecanismos de plasticidad presináptica en la función cognitiva.

Des études prospectives communautaires permettent d'évaluer des associations entre le fonctionnement cognitif et des mesures synaptiques, contrôlées pour des pathologies liées à l'âge. Des résultats issus de plus de 400 participants communautaires sont analysés. Les taux de complexine-I (terminaisons inhibitrices) et de complexine-II (terminaisons excitatrices), deux protéines présynaptiques, contribuent aux variations cognitives de la normalité à la démence. S'y ajoute l'interaction protéine-protéine entre la protéine SNAP25 (protéine 25 associée au synaptosome) et la syntaxine, expliquant 6 % de la variance totale. Le variant long de la protéine pré-synaptique Munc18-1 est localisé sur les terminaisons inhibitrices et associé positivement à la cognition, comme la complexine-I. Les associations dépendent du stade Braak, le taux de complexine-I étant responsable de presque 15 % de la variation cognitive pour les stades 0-II alors que la complexine-II contribue pour 7 % aux stades V-VI. Des gels non dénaturants identifient des complexes multiples protéine-protéine SNARE (Soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor Attachment protein REceptor) dans les lobes frontaux et temporaux, contribuant spécifiquement aux fonctions cognitives. Au cours du vieillissement, de nombreux mécanismes de plasticité présynaptique participent à la fonction cognitive.

The SNAP25 Interactome in Ventromedial Caudate in Schizophrenia Includes the Mitochondrial Protein ARF1.

Abnormalities of SNAP25 (synaptosome-associated protein 25) amount and protein-protein interactions occur in schizophrenia, and may contribute to abnormalities of neurotransmitter release in patients. However, presynaptic terminal function depends on multiple subcellular mechanisms, including energy provided by mitochondria. To explore the SNAP25 interactome in schizophrenia, we immunoprecipitated SNAP25 along with interacting proteins from the ventromedial caudate of 15 cases of schizophrenia and 13 controls. Proteins were identified with mass spectrometry-based proteomics. As well as 15 SNARE- (soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor) associated proteins, we identified 17 mitochondria-associated and four other proteins. The mitochondrial small GTPase ARF1 (ADP-ribosylation factor 1) was identified in eight schizophrenia SNAP25 immunoprecipitates and none from controls (P = 0.004). Although the ARF1-SNAP25 interaction may be increased, immunoblotting demonstrated 21% lower ARF1-21 (21 kiloDaltons) in schizophrenia samples (P = 0.04). In contrast, the mitochondrial protein UQCRC1 (ubiquinol-cytochrome c reductase core protein 1) did not differ. Lower ARF1-21 levels were associated with the previously reported increased SNAP25-syntaxin interaction in schizophrenia (r = -0.39, P = 0.04). Additional immunoprecipitation studies confirmed the ARF1-21-SNAP25 interaction, independent of UQCRC1. Both ARF1 and SNAP25 were localized to synaptosomes. Confocal microscopy demonstrated co-localization of ARF1 and SNAP25, and further suggested fivefold enrichment of ARF1 in synaptosomes containing an excitatory marker (vesicular glutamate transporter) compared with synaptosomes containing an inhibitory marker (vesicular GABA transporter). The present findings suggest an association between abnormalities of SNARE proteins involved with vesicular neurotransmission and the mitochondrial protein ARF1 that may contribute to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia.

Reduced SNAP25 Protein Fragmentation Contributes to SNARE Complex Dysregulation in Schizophrenia Postmortem Brain.

Recent studies associated schizophrenia with enhanced functionality of the presynaptic SNARE (soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor) complex. Altered degradation pathways of the three core SNARE proteins: synaptosomal-associated protein 25 (SNAP25), syntaxin-1 and vesicle-associated membrane protein (VAMP) could contribute to enhanced complex function. To investigate these pathways, we first identified a 15-kDa SNAP25 fragment (f-S25) in human and rat brains, highly enriched in synaptosomal extractions, and mainly attached to cytosolic membranes with low hydrophobicity. The presence of f-S25 is consistent with reports of calpain-mediated SNAP25 cleavage. Co-immunoprecipitation assays showed that f-S25 retains the ability to bind syntaxin-1, which might prevent VAMP and/or Munc18-1 assembly into the complex. Quantitative analyses in postmortem human orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) revealed that schizophrenia (n = 35), but not major depression (n = 15), is associated with lower amounts of f-S25 (-37%, P = 0.027), and greater SNARE protein-protein interactions (35%, P < 0.001), compared with healthy matched controls (n = 28). Enhanced SNARE complex formation was strongly correlated with lower SNAP25 fragmentation rates (R = 0.563, P < 0.001). Statistical mediation analyses supported the hypothesis that reduced f-S25 density could upregulate SNARE fusion events in schizophrenia. Cortical calpain activity in schizophrenia did not differ from controls. f-S25 levels did not correlate with total calpain activity, indicating that if present, schizophrenia-related calpain dysfunction might occur locally at the presynaptic terminals. Overall, the present findings suggest the existence of an endogenous SNARE complex inhibitor related to SNAP25 proteolysis, associated with enhanced SNARE activity in schizophrenia.

Frontotemporal dysregulation of the SNARE protein interactome is associated with faster cognitive decline in old age.

The molecular underpinnings associated with cognitive reserve remain poorly understood. Because animal models fail to fully recapitulate the complexity of human brain aging, postmortem studies from well-designed cohorts are crucial to unmask mechanisms conferring cognitive resistance against cumulative neuropathologies. We tested the hypothesis that functionality of the SNARE protein interactome might be an important resilience factor preserving cognitive abilities in old age. Cognition was assessed annually in participants from the Rush "Memory and Aging Project" (MAP), a community-dwelling cohort representative of the overall aging population. Associations between cognition and postmortem neurochemical data were evaluated in functional assays quantifying various species of the SNARE (soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor) machinery in samples from the inferior temporal (IT, n = 154) and middle-frontal (MF, n = 174) gyri. Using blue-native gel electrophoresis, we isolated and quantified several types of complexes containing the three SNARE proteins (syntaxin-1, SNAP25, VAMP), as well as the GABAergic/glutamatergic selectively expressed complexins-I/II (CPLX1/2), in brain tissue homogenates and reconstitution assays with recombinant proteins. Multivariate analyses revealed significant associations between IT and MF neurochemical data (SNARE proteins and/or complexes), and multiple age-related neuropathologies, as well as with multiple cognitive domains of MAP participants. Controlling for demographic variables, neuropathologic indices and total synapse density, we found that temporal 150-kDa SNARE species (representative of pan-synaptic functionality) and frontal CPLX1/CPLX2 ratio of 500-kDa heteromeric species (representative of inhibitory/excitatory input functionality) were, among all the immunocharacterized complexes, the strongest predictors of cognitive function nearest death. Interestingly, these two neurochemical variables were associated with different cognitive domains. In addition, linear mixed effect models of global cognitive decline estimated that both 150-kDa SNARE levels and CPLX1/CPLX2 ratio were associated with better cognition and less decline over time. The results are consistent with previous studies reporting that synapse dysfunction (i.e. dysplasticity) may be initiated early, and relatively independent of neuropathology-driven synapse loss. Frontotemporal dysregulation of the GABAergic/glutamatergic stimuli might be a target for future drug development.

Identification of genes associated with dissociation of cognitive performance and neuropathological burden: Multistep analysis of genetic, epigenetic, and transcriptional data.

INTRODUCTION: The molecular underpinnings of the dissociation of cognitive performance and neuropathological burden are poorly understood, and there are currently no known genetic or epigenetic determinants of the dissociation. METHODS AND FINDINGS: "Residual cognition" was quantified by regressing out the effects of cerebral pathologies and demographic characteristics on global cognitive performance proximate to death. To identify genes influencing residual cognition, we leveraged neuropathological, genetic, epigenetic, and transcriptional data available for deceased participants of the Religious Orders Study (n = 492) and the Rush Memory and Aging Project (n = 487). Given that our sample size was underpowered to detect genome-wide significance, we applied a multistep approach to identify genes influencing residual cognition, based on our prior observation that independent genetic and epigenetic risk factors can converge on the same locus. In the first step (n = 979), we performed a genome-wide association study with a predefined suggestive p < 10-5, and nine independent loci met this threshold in eight distinct chromosomal regions. Three of the six genes within 100 kb of the lead SNP are expressed in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC): UNC5C, ENC1, and TMEM106B. In the second step, in the subset of participants with DLPFC DNA methylation data (n = 648), we found that residual cognition was related to differential DNA methylation of UNC5C and ENC1 (false discovery rate < 0.05). In the third step, in the subset of participants with DLPFC RNA sequencing data (n = 469), brain transcription levels of UNC5C and ENC1 were evaluated for their association with residual cognition: RNA levels of both UNC5C (estimated effect = -0.40, 95% CI -0.69 to -0.10, p = 0.0089) and ENC1 (estimated effect = 0.0064, 95% CI 0.0033 to 0.0096, p = 5.7 × 10-5) were associated with residual cognition. In secondary analyses, we explored the mechanism of these associations and found that ENC1 may be related to the previously documented effect of depression on cognitive decline, while UNC5C may alter the composition of presynaptic terminals. Of note, the TMEM106B allele identified in the first step as being associated with better residual cognition is in strong linkage disequilibrium with rs1990622A (r2 = 0.66), a previously identified protective allele for TDP-43 proteinopathy. Limitations include the small sample size for the genetic analysis, which was underpowered to detect genome-wide significance, the evaluation being limited to a single cortical region for epigenetic and transcriptomic data, and the use of categorical measures for certain non-amyloid-plaque, non-neurofibrillary-tangle neuropathologies. CONCLUSIONS: Through a multistep analysis of cognitive, neuropathological, genomic, epigenomic, and transcriptomic data, we identified ENC1 and UNC5C as genes with convergent genetic, epigenetic, and transcriptomic evidence supporting a potential role in the dissociation of cognition and neuropathology in an aging population, and we expanded our understanding of the TMEM106B haplotype that is protective against TDP-43 proteinopathy.

Decreased cortical FADD protein is associated with clinical dementia and cognitive decline in an elderly community sample.

BACKGROUND: FADD (Fas-associated death domain) adaptor is a crucial protein involved in the induction of cell death but also mediates non-apoptotic actions via a phosphorylated form (p-Ser194-FADD). This study investigated the possible association of FADD forms with age-related neuropathologies, cognitive function, and the odds of dementia in an elderly community sample. METHODS: FADD forms were quantified by western blot analysis in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) samples from a large cohort of participants in a community-based aging study (Memory and Aging Project, MAP), experiencing no-(NCI, n = 51) or mild-(MCI, n = 42) cognitive impairment, or dementia (n = 57). RESULTS: Cortical FADD was lower in subjects with dementia and lower FADD was associated with a greater load of amyloid-ß pathology, fewer presynaptic terminal markers, poorer cognitive function and increased odds of dementia. Together with the observations of FADD redistribution into tangles and dystrophic neurites within plaques in Alzheimer's disease brains, and its reduction in APP23 mouse cortex, the results suggest this multifunctional protein might participate in the mechanisms linking amyloid and tau pathologies during the course of the illness. CONCLUSIONS: The present data suggests FADD as a putative biomarker for pathological processes associated with the course of clinical dementia.

Antipsychotic Induced Dopamine Supersensitivity Psychosis: A Comprehensive Review.

Chronic prescription of antipsychotics seems to lose its therapeutic benefits in the prevention of recurring psychotic symptoms. In many instances, the occurrence of relapse from initial remission is followed by an increase in dose of the prescribed antipsychotic. The current understanding of why this occurs is still in its infancy, but a controversial idea that has regained attention recently is the notion of iatrogenic dopamine supersensitivity. Studies on cell cultures and animal models have shown that long-term antipsychotic use is linked to both an upregulation of dopamine D₂-receptors in the striatum and the emergence of enhanced receptor affinity to endogenous dopamine. These findings have been hypothesized to contribute to the phenomenon known as dopamine supersensitivity psychosis (DSP), which has been clinically typified as the foundation of rebound psychosis, drug tolerance, and tardive dyskinesia. The focus of this review is the update of evidence behind the classification of antipsychotic induced DSP and an investigation of its relationship to treatment resistance. Since antipsychotics are the foundation of illness management, a greater understanding of DSP and its prevention may greatly affect patient outcomes.

Presynaptic proteins complexin-I and complexin-II differentially influence cognitive function in early and late stages of Alzheimer's disease.

Progressive accumulation of Alzheimer's disease-related pathology is associated with cognitive dysfunction. Differences in cognitive reserve may contribute to individual differences in cognitive function in the presence of comparable neuropathology. The protective effects of cognitive reserve could contribute differentially in early versus late stages of the disease. We investigated presynaptic proteins as measures of brain reserve (a subset of total cognitive reserve), and used Braak staging to estimate the progression of Alzheimer's disease. Antemortem evaluations of cognitive function, postmortem assessments of pathologic indices, and presynaptic protein analyses, including the complexins I and II as respective measures of inhibitory and excitatory terminal function, were assayed in multiple key brain regions in 418 deceased participants from a community study. After covarying for demographic variables, pathologic indices, and overall synapse density, lower brain complexin-I and -II levels contributed to cognitive dysfunction (P < 0.01). Each complexin appeared to be dysregulated at a different Braak stage. Inhibitory complexin-I explained 14.4% of the variance in global cognition in Braak 0-II, while excitatory complexin-II explained 7.3% of the variance in Braak V-VI. Unlike other presynaptic proteins, complexins did not colocalize with pathologic tau within neuritic plaques, suggesting that these functional components of the synaptic machinery are cleared early from dystrophic neurites. Moreover, complexin levels showed distinct patterns of change related to memory challenges in a rat model, supporting the functional specificity of these proteins. The present results suggest that disruption of inhibitory synaptic terminals may trigger early cognitive impairment, while excitatory terminal disruption may contribute relatively more to later cognitive impairment.

A Tetra-Primer Amplification Refractory System Technique for the Cost-Effective and Novel Genotyping of Eight Single-Nucleotide Polymorphisms of the Catechol-O-Methyltransferase Gene.

AIMS: Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) is an enzyme involved in the degradation of catecholamine neurotransmitters. Due to its role in neurotransmitter flux, multiple COMT variants have been associated with the development of psychiatric disorders. Notably, select single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of the COMT gene have been implicated in schizophrenia risk, severity, and treatment response. In recognition of the value of a streamlined genotyping method for COMT SNP detection, this study was designed to develop a simple and economical tetra-primer amplification refractory mutation system (T-ARMS) assay for the concurrent detection of eight COMT SNPs: rs4680, rs737865, rs165599, rs2075507, rs4633, rs4818, rs6269, and rs165774. MATERIALS AND METHODS: T-ARMS is a genotyping method that uses polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify a multiplex reaction consisting of two primer pairs. T-ARMS primers are customized to each SNP and designed to generate different-sized allele-specific amplicons. This assay was applied to a total of 39 genomic DNA samples. Genotypic designations across the panel of SNPs were subsequently validated by Sanger sequencing. RESULTS: T-ARMS reliably and unambiguously detected all three genotypes (homozygous wild type, heterozygous, and homozygous mutant) for each of the eight COMT SNPs. CONCLUSIONS: Compared to traditional low-throughput methods that require post-PCR modification or high-throughput technologies that require sophisticated equipment, T-ARMS is a cost-effective and efficient assay that can be easily adapted by any standard molecular diagnostics laboratory. This T-ARMS assay provides a practical and robust method for COMT SNP detection.

Loss of Munc18-1 long splice variant in GABAergic terminals is associated with cognitive decline and increased risk of dementia in a community sample.

BACKGROUND: Presynaptic terminals contribute to cognitive reserve, balancing the effects of age-related pathologies on cognitive function in the elderly. The presynaptic protein Munc18-1, alternatively spliced into long (M18L) or short (M18S) isoforms, is a critical modulator of neurotransmission. While subtle alterations in Munc18-1 have been shown to cause severe neuropsychiatric disorders with cognitive impairment, little information is known regarding the specific roles of Munc18-1 splice variants. We first investigated functional and anatomical features evidencing the divergent roles of M18L and M18S, and then evaluated their contribution to the full range of age-related cognitive impairment in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of a large sample of participants from a community-based aging study, including subjects with no-(NCI, n = 90), or mild-(MCI, n = 86) cognitive impairment, or with clinical dementia (n = 132). Finally, we used APP23 mutant mice to study the association between M18L/S and the time-dependent accumulation of common Alzheimer's disease pathology. RESULTS: Using isoform-specific antibodies, M18L was localized to the synaptosomal fraction, with a distribution matching lipid raft microdomains. M18S was found widely across cytosolic and synaptosomal compartments. Immunocytochemical studies identified M18L in perisomatic, GABAergic terminals, while M18S was broadly distributed in GABAergic and glutamatergic terminals. Using regression models taking into account multiple age-related pathologies, age, education and sex, global cognitive function was associated with the level of M18L (p = 0.006) but not M18S (p = 0.88). Mean M18L in dementia cases was 51 % lower than in NCI cases (p < 0.001), and each unit of M18L was associated with a lower likelihood of dementia (odds ratio = 0.68, 95 % confidence interval = 0.50-0.90, p = 0.008). In contrast, M18S balanced across clinical and pathologically diagnosed groups. M18L loss may not be caused by age-related amyloid pathology, since APP23 mice (12- and 22-months of age) had unchanged cortical levels of M18L/S compared with wild-type animals. CONCLUSIONS: M18L was localized to presynaptic inhibitory terminals, and was associated with cognitive function and protection from dementia in an elderly, community-based cohort. Lower M18L in inhibitory presynaptic terminals may be an early, independent contributor to cognitive decline.