Two Randomized Controlled Trials to Help Teachers Develop Physical Education Students' Course-Specific Grit-Perseverance and Mental Toughness.

Adopting both a self-determination theory perspective and a proactive, asset-oriented approach to coping with stressors, we propose a hypothesized model to explain physical education students' year-long development of course-specific grit-perseverance (Study 1) and mental toughness (Study 2). In both studies, we used a randomized controlled trial research design with longitudinally assessed dependent measures (four waves) to test a hypothesized model in which teacher participation in an autonomy-supportive teaching workshop (experimental condition) would increase students' T2 perceived autonomy-supportive teaching and T2 perceived autonomy-supportive classmates, both of which would increase T3 need satisfaction, which would then explain longitudinal gains in students' T4 grit-perseverance (Study 1) and mental toughness (Study 2). In both Study 1 (57 teachers, 3,147 students) and Study 2 (38 teachers, 2,057 students), a multilevel structural equation modeling analysis showed that the hypothesized model fit the data very well. We conclude that the developmental roots of grit-perseverance and mental toughness can emerge proactively out of the asset-oriented experiences of interpersonal support and psychological need satisfaction that are central to self-determination theory.

A qualitative study into the personal factors influencing secondary school teachers' motivating styles.

Background: All teachers aspire to create the most motivating classroom climate for their students. This is because students who are motivated demonstrate superior learning outcomes relative to students who are not motivated. According to the Self-Determination Theory (SDT), when teachers establish an autonomy-supportive climate in their classrooms, their students can benefit in numerous developmentally and educationally important ways. Whilst most teachers have an understanding that autonomy-supportive teaching can benefit their students, many of them are unwilling or unable to carry out autonomy-supportive strategies. This can be explained by the implicit and explicit forces (e.g., teaching philosophies and beliefs, personal experiences) imposed on them by their internal (namely, intrapsychic) and external (namely, social) environments. This paper focuses on the personal factors that influence teachers' adoption and employment of autonomy-supportive instructional behaviours. Method: Following a 10-week intervention program on implementing six autonomy-supportive instructional behaviours, we interviewed 59 teachers from 17 secondary schools in Singapore on their adoption and employment of the teaching strategies. Their number of years of teaching experience ranged from 1 to 31 years with a mean of 10.8 years of teaching experience, and 62.71% of them were female. Finding: From the interviews, we identified several teacher-related personal factors which we labelled "teaching philosophies and beliefs," "personal experiences," "motivation to teach," "personality," "teachers' mental and emotional states" and "teaching efficacy." Through identifying the personal factors, we hope to raise awareness amongst the teachers on the inner forces that can foster or frustrate their own expression of autonomy-supportive instructional behaviours. Given the many plausible benefits that can be derived from autonomy-supportive teaching, we hope that the information gained from this qualitative study can path the way for greater willingness and effort in implementing autonomy-supportive teaching in the classrooms.

Autonomy-Supportive Teaching Enhances Prosocial and Reduces Antisocial Behavior via Classroom Climate and Psychological Needs: A Multilevel Randomized Control Intervention.

Autonomy-supportive teaching increases prosocial and decreases antisocial behavior. Previous research showed that these effects occur because autonomy-supportive teaching improves students' need states (a student-level process). However, the present study investigated whether these effects also occur because autonomy-supportive teaching improves the classroom climate (a classroom-level process). Teachers from 80 physical education classrooms were randomly assigned to participate (or not) in an autonomy-supportive teaching intervention, while their 2,227 secondary-grade students reported their need satisfaction and frustration, supportive and hierarchical classroom climates, and prosocial and antisocial behaviors at the beginning, middle, and end of an academic year. A doubly latent, multilevel structural equation model showed that teacher participation in the intervention (experimental condition) increased class-wide need satisfaction, a supportive climate, and prosocial behavior and decreased class-wide need frustration, a hierarchical climate, and antisocial behavior. Together, greater collective need satisfaction and a more supportive climate combined to explain increased prosocial behavior, while lesser need frustration and a less hierarchical climate combined to explain decreased antisocial behavior. These classroom climate effects have been overlooked, yet they are essential to explain why autonomy-supportive teaching improves students' social functioning.

Cluster randomized control trial to reduce peer victimization: An autonomy-supportive teaching intervention changes the classroom ethos to support defending bystanders.

Peer victimization is a worldwide crisis unresolved by 50 years of research and intervention. We capitalized on recent methodological advances and integrated self-determination theory with a social-ecological perspective. We provided teachers with a professional development experience to establish a highly supportive classroom climate that enabled the emergence of pro-victim student bystanders during bullying episodes. In our longitudinal cluster randomized control trial, we randomly assigned 24 teachers (15 men, 9 women; 19 middle school, 5 high school; 32.8 years old, 6.7 years of experience) in 48 classrooms to the autonomy-supportive teaching (AST) workshop (24 classrooms) or the no-intervention control (24 classrooms). Their 1,178 students (age: M = 13.7, SD = 1.5; range = 11-18) reported their perceived teacher autonomy support; perceived classmates' autonomy support; adoption of the defender role; and peer victimization at the beginning, middle, and end of an 18-week semester. A doubly latent multilevel structural equation model with follow-up mediation tests showed that experimental-group teachers created a substantially more supportive classroom climate, leading student bystanders to embrace the defender role. This classroom-wide (L2) emergence of pro-victim peer bystanders led to sharply reduced victimization (effect size = -.40). Unlike largely unsuccessful past interventions that focused mainly on individual students, our randomized control trial intervention substantially reduced bullying and victimization. Focusing on individual students is likely to be ineffective (even counterproductive) without first changing the normative climate that reinforces bullying. Accordingly, our intervention focused on the classroom teacher. In the classrooms of these teachers, bystanders supported the victims because the classroom climate supported the bystanders. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Overcoming Limitations in Peer-Victimization Research That Impede Successful Intervention: Challenges and New Directions.

Peer victimization at school is a worldwide problem with profound implications for victims, bullies, and whole-school communities. Yet the 50-year quest to solve the problem has produced mostly disappointing results. A critical examination of current research reveals both pivotal limitations and potential solutions. Solutions include introducing psychometrically sound measures to assess the parallel components of bullying and victimization, analyzing cross-national data sets, and embracing a social-ecological perspective emphasizing the motivation of bullies, importance of bystanders, pro-defending and antibullying attitudes, classroom climate, and a multilevel perspective. These solutions have been integrated into a series of recent interventions. Teachers can be professionally trained to create a highly supportive climate that allows student-bystanders to overcome their otherwise normative tendency to reinforce bullies. Once established, this intervention-enabled classroom climate impedes bully-victim episodes. The take-home message is to work with teachers on how to develop an interpersonally supportive classroom climate at the beginning of the school year to catalyze student-bystanders' volitional internalization of pro-defending and antibullying attitudes and social norms. Recommendations for future research include studying bullying and victimization simultaneously, testing multilevel models, targeting classroom climate and bystander roles as critical intervention outcomes, and integrating school-wide and individual student interventions only after improving social norms and the school climate.

A neuroscientific perspective on basic psychological needs.

OBJECTIVE: Self-determination theory's (SDT) most basic propositions are, first, that all people possess an inherent set of psychological needs and, second, that autonomy, competence, and relatedness are the three critical psychological satisfactions needed to maintain and promote personal growth and well-being. In this article, we identify the neural basis of the psychological needs and, in doing so, seek to advance the integration of SDT and neuroscience. METHOD: We examine the neural underpinnings of SDT-based motivational states and traits for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. To study motivational states, participants are exposed to situational conditions known to affect their psychological needs, and neuroscience methods (e.g., fMRI) are used to examine changes in their brain activity. To study motivational traits, participants complete self-report trait measures that are then correlated with their brain activity observed during need-satisfying activities. RESULTS: For both motivational states and traits and across all three needs, intrinsic satisfaction is associated with striatum-based reward processing, anterior insula-based subjective feelings, and the integration of these subjective feelings with reward-based processing. CONCLUSIONS: Psychological need satisfaction is associated with striatum activity, anterior insula activity, and the functional coactivation between these two brain areas. Given these findings, it is now clear that several opportunities exist to integrate SDT motivational constructs with neuroscientific study, so we suggest eight new questions for future research.

Identifying the neural substrates of intrinsic motivation during task performance.

Intrinsic motivation is the inherent tendency to seek out novelty and challenge, to explore and investigate, and to stretch and extend one's capacities. When people imagine performing intrinsically motivating tasks, they show heightened anterior insular cortex (AIC) activity. To fully explain the neural system of intrinsic motivation, however, requires assessing neural activity while people actually perform intrinsically motivating tasks (i.e., while answering curiosity-inducing questions or solving competence-enabling anagrams). Using event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging, we found that the neural system of intrinsic motivation involves not only AIC activity, but also striatum activity and, further, AIC-striatum functional interactions. These findings suggest that subjective feelings of intrinsic satisfaction (associated with AIC activations), reward processing (associated with striatum activations), and their interactions underlie the actual experience of intrinsic motivation. These neural findings are consistent with the conceptualization of intrinsic motivation as the pursuit and satisfaction of subjective feelings (interest and enjoyment) as intrinsic rewards.

A Teacher-Focused Intervention to Decrease PE Students' Amotivation by Increasing Need Satisfaction and Decreasing Need Frustration.

Intervention-induced gains in need satisfaction decrease PE students' amotivation. The present study adopted a dual-process model to test whether an intervention could also decrease need frustration and hence provide a second supplemental source to further decrease students' PE amotivation. Using an experimental, longitudinal research design, 19 experienced PE teachers (9 experimental, 10 control) and their 1,017 students participated in an intervention program to help teachers become both more autonomy supportive and less controlling. Multilevel repeated measures analyses showed that students of teachers in the experimental group reported greater T2, T3, and T4 perceived autonomy support, need satisfaction, and engagement and lesser T2, T3, and T4 perceived teacher control, need frustration, and amotivation than did students of teachers in the control group. Multilevel structural equation modeling analyses confirmed the hypothesized dual-process model in which both intervention-induced increases in need satisfaction and intervention-induced decreases need frustration decreased students' end-of-semester amotivation. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of this new finding on the dual antecedents of diminished amotivation.

The teacher benefits from giving autonomy support during physical education instruction.

Recognizing that students benefit when they receive autonomy-supportive teaching, the current study tested the parallel hypothesis that teachers themselves would benefit from giving autonomy support. Twenty-seven elementary, middle, and high school physical education teachers (20 males, 7 females) were randomly assigned either to participate in an autonomy-supportive intervention program (experimental group) or to teach their physical education course with their existing style (control group) within a three-wave longitudinal research design. Manipulation checks showed that the intervention was successful, as students perceived and raters scored teachers in the experimental group as displaying a more autonomy-supportive and less controlling motivating style. In the main analyses, ANCOVA-based repeated-measures analyses showed large and consistent benefits for teachers in the experimental group, including greater teaching motivation (psychological need satisfaction, autonomous motivation, and intrinsic goals), teaching skill (teaching efficacy), and teaching well-being (vitality, job satisfaction, and lesser emotional and physical exhaustion). These findings show that giving autonomy support benefits teachers in much the same way that receiving it benefits their students.

An effective psychoeducational intervention for early childhood caries prevention: part I.

PURPOSE: The purpose was to compare whether mothers exposed to an autonomy-supportive psychoeducational videotaped message, informed by the self-determination theory (SDT), demonstrated greater changes in oral health knowledge and behavioral intentions as a preventive means for early childhood caries (ECC) than mothers exposed to a neutral message delivered by brochure. METHODS: Data were collected at baseline, one-, and six-month follow-ups from 415 12- to 49-month-old WIC-enrolled children and their mothers: 283 in the video intervention group and 132 in the brochure control group. Mothers completed questionnaires on maternal knowledge and behavioral intentions for oral health care. Chi-square, Wilcoxon rank-sum, and Mann-Whitney tests were used to analyze data (P<.05). RESULTS: Relative to their baseline scores, the intervention group showed a greater increase in knowledge than the control group, both at one-month (P=.002) and six-month follow-ups (P<.001). The video group also demonstrated a greater increase in behavioral intentions than controls, both at one-month (P<.05) and six-month follow-ups (P<.001). Knowledge and behavioral intention levels at six-month follow-up did not differ significantly from those at one-month follow-up, indicating that intervention-based increases in these measures were maintained over time. CONCLUSIONS: Data provided evidence of the effectiveness of the autonomy-supportive psychoeducational intervention for ECC prevention relative to a neutral brochure.

An effective psychoeducational intervention for early childhood caries prevention: part II.

PURPOSE: The purpose was to compare whether mothers exposed to an autonomy-supportive psychoeducational videotaped message, informed by self-determination theory (SDT), demonstrated greater changes in behavior concerning their children's oral health than mothers exposed to a neutral message delivered by brochure. METHODS: Data were collected at baseline, one- and six-month follow-ups from 415 12- to 49-month-old WIC-enrolled children and their mothers: 283 in the video intervention group and 132 in the brochure control group. Mothers completed questionnaires regarding their child's dietary/oral hygiene habits. Chi-square, Wilcoxon Signed Rank, Mann-Whitney, and McNemar tests were used to analyze data (P<0.05). RESULTS: Significantly more positive changes were observed for dietary/oral hygiene behaviors among the intervention group mothers at one- and six-month follow-ups than for the controls. Significantly fewer mothers in the intervention group shared dining ware with their child at both one- (P=0.0046) and six-month follow-ups (P<0.0001); this practice was decreased only at six-months for the control group mothers (P=0.05). Restricting consideration only to mothers who were not checking for white spot lesions at baseline, a significantly greater proportion of mothers in the intervention group performed this behavior at six-months (P=0.0044). CONCLUSIONS: Data provided evidence of the effectiveness of the SDT videotaped oral health message relative to a neutral brochure.

Self-determined, but not non-self-determined, motivation predicts activations in the anterior insular cortex: an fMRI study of personal agency.

Neuroscientific studies on agency focus rather exclusively on the notion of who initiates and regulates actions, not on the notion of why the person does. The present study focused on the latter to investigate two different reasons underlying personal agency. Using event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging, we scanned 16 healthy human subjects while they imagined the enactment of volitional, agentic behavior on the same task but either for a self-determined and intrinsically motivated reason or for a non-self-determined and extrinsically motivated reason. Results showed that the anterior insular cortex (AIC), known to be related to the sense of agency, was more activated during self-determined behavior while the angular gyrus, known to be related to the sense of loss of agency, was more activated during non-self-determined behavior. Furthermore, AIC activities during self-determined behavior correlated highly with participants' self-reported intrinsic satisfactions. We conclude that self-determined behavior is more agentic than is non-self-determined behavior and that personal agency arises only during self-determined, intrinsically motivated action.

Experimentally based, longitudinally designed, teacher-focused intervention to help physical education teachers be more autonomy supportive toward their students.

Using the field's state-of-the-art knowledge, we designed, implemented, and assessed the effectiveness of an intervention to help physical education (PE) teachers be more autonomy supportive during instruction. Nineteen secondary-school PE teachers in Seoul were randomly assigned into either an experimental or a delayed-treatment control group, and their 1,158 students self-reported their course-related psychological need satisfaction, autonomous motivation, amotivation, classroom engagement, skill development, future intentions, and academic achievement at the beginning, middle, and end of the semester. Observers' ratings and students' self-reports confirmed that the intervention was successful. Repeated-measures ANCOVAs showed that the students of teachers in the experimental group showed midsemester and end-of-semester improvements in all dependent measures. A multilevel structural equation model mediation analysis showed why the teacher-training program produced improvements in all six student outcomes - namely, teachers in the experimental group vitalized their students' psychological need satisfaction during PE class in ways that teachers in the control group were unable to do, and it was this enhanced need satisfaction that explained the observed improvements in all six outcomes.

Factors associated with mutans streptococci among young WIC-enrolled children.

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study is to assess relationships between the presence or absence of mutans streptococci (MS) and other covariates in children aged 12-49 months. METHODS: Data were analyzed using baseline information from 411 children enrolled in the Special Supplemental Food Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC) who participated in a psychoeducational study in Iowa. Children were assessed for MS using a semiquantitative method (RODAC plates). Dental examinations using d(1) d(2) .(3) criteria and presence of visible plaque on incisors and molars were completed. Mothers completed a series of detailed questionnaires regarding their child's oral health, their socioeconomic status, their child's dietary/oral hygiene habits, and beverage consumption, among other behaviors. Bivariate relationships with the presence of MS were assessed and followed by multivariable modeling using logistic regression (alpha = 0.05). RESULTS: MS was present in 144 children (35 percent). Bivariate relationships with MS presence were identified for multiple covariates that included demographic characteristics, type of beverage consumption, dental caries, and plaque measures. Multivariate logistic regression modeling suggested that MS presence in children was positively associated with nonwhite race of the child, number of teeth present, presence of cavitated lesions, proportion of teeth with plaque, and lower levels of maternal education. CONCLUSIONS: The presence of MS was associated with greater caries and plaque scores and with low maternal education and nonwhite racial background.

Neural differences between intrinsic reasons for doing versus extrinsic reasons for doing: an fMRI study.

The contemporary neural understanding of motivation is based almost exclusively on the neural mechanisms of incentive motivation. Recognizing this as a limitation, we used event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to pursue the viability of expanding the neural understanding of motivation by initiating a pioneering study of intrinsic motivation by scanning participants' neural activity when they decided to act for intrinsic reasons versus when they decided to act for extrinsic reasons. As expected, intrinsic reasons for acting more recruited insular cortex activity while extrinsic reasons for acting more recruited posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) activity. The results demonstrate that engagement decisions based on intrinsic motivation are more determined by weighing the presence of spontaneous self-satisfactions such as interest and enjoyment while engagement decisions based on extrinsic motivation are more determined by weighing socially-acquired stored values as to whether the environmental incentive is attractive enough to warrant action.