Monoclonal antibodies targeting different cell wall antigens of group B streptococcus mediate protection in both Fc-dependent and independent manner.

Group B streptococcus remains an important neonatal pathogen in spite of widely adopted intrapartum antibiotic administration; therefore immune prophylaxis for GBS infections is highly warranted. In passive immunization and lethal challenge studies with multiple GBS strains, we characterized the protective effect of rabbit polyclonal and murine monoclonal antibodies specific for four multi-functional cell wall anchored proteins, FbsA, BibA, PilA and PilB. Single specificity rabbit sera or mAbs induced high level, but strain dependent protection, while their combinations resulted in superior and broad efficacy against all GBS strains tested. Polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies specific for the pilus proteins exerted very potent opsonophagocytic killing activity in vitro and required the Fc domain for protection in vivo. In contrast, FbsA and BibA specific antibodies failed to show OPK activity, but their Fab fragments fully protected animals, suggesting that blocking the function of these proteins was the major mode of action. These data are supportive for developing immune prophylaxis with human mAbs for prematurely born neonates who receive low levels of antibodies by maternofetal transport and are characterized by not fully developed phagocytic and complement activity.

Rga is a regulator of adherence and pilus formation in Streptococcus agalactiae.

Streptococcus agalactiae is the leading cause of bacterial sepsis and meningitis in neonates and is also the causative agent of several serious infections in immunocompromised adults. S. agalactiae encounters multiple niches during an infection, suggesting that regulatory mechanisms control the expression of specific virulence factors in this bacterium. The present study describes the functional characterization of a gene from S. agalactiae, designated rga, which encodes a protein with significant similarity to members of the RofA-like protein (RALP) family of transcriptional regulators. After deletion of the rga gene in the genome of S. agalactiae, the mutant strain exhibited significantly reduced expression of the genes srr-1 and pilA, which encode a serine-rich repeat surface glycoprotein and a pilus protein, respectively, and moderately increased expression of the fbsA gene, which encodes a fibrinogen-binding protein. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays demonstrated specific DNA binding of purified Rga to the promoter regions of pilA and fbsA, suggesting that Rga directly controls pilA and fbsA. Adherence assays revealed significantly reduced binding of the Δrga mutant to epithelial HEp-2 cells and to immobilized human keratin 4, respectively. In contrast, the adherence of the Δrga mutant to A549 cells and its binding to human fibrinogen was significantly increased. Immunoblot and immunoelectron microscopy revealed that the quantity of pilus structures was significantly reduced in the Δrga mutant compared with the parental strain. The wild-type phenotype could be restored by plasmid-mediated expression of rga, demonstrating that the mutant phenotypes resulted from a loss of Rga function.

The surface protein Srr-1 of Streptococcus agalactiae binds human keratin 4 and promotes adherence to epithelial HEp-2 cells.

Streptococcus agalactiae is frequently the cause of bacterial sepsis and meningitis in neonates. In addition, it is a commensal bacterium that colonizes the mammalian gastrointestinal tract. During its commensal and pathogenic lifestyles, S. agalactiae colonizes and invades a number of host compartments, thereby interacting with different host proteins. In the present study, the serine-rich repeat protein Srr-1 from S. agalactiae was functionally investigated. Immunofluorescence microscopy showed that Srr-1 was localized on the surface of streptococcal cells. The Srr-1 protein was shown to interact with a 62-kDa protein in human saliva, which was identified by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time-of-flight analysis as human keratin 4 (K4). Immunoblot and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay experiments allowed us to narrow down the K4 binding domain in Srr-1 to a region of 157 amino acids (aa). Furthermore, the Srr-1 binding domain of K4 was identified in the C-terminal 255 aa of human K4. Deletion of the srr-1 gene in the genome of S. agalactiae revealed that this gene plays a role in bacterial binding to human K4 and that it is involved in adherence to epithelial HEp-2 cells. Binding to immobilized K4 and adherence to HEp-2 cells were restored by introducing the srr-1 gene on a shuttle plasmid into the srr-1 mutant. Furthermore, incubation of HEp-2 cells with the K4 binding domain of Srr-1 blocked S. agalactiae adherence to epithelial cells in a dose-dependent fashion. This is the first report describing the interaction of a bacterial protein with human K4.

The transcriptional regulator RovS controls the attachment of Streptococcus agalactiae to human epithelial cells and the expression of virulence genes.

Streptococcus agalactiae is part of the normal flora of the human gastrointestinal tract and also the leading cause of bacterial infections in human newborns and immunocompromised adults. The colonization and infection of different regions within the human host require a regulatory network in S. agalactiae that senses environmental stimuli and controls the formation of specific virulence factors. In the present study, we characterized an Rgg-like transcriptional regulator, designated RovS (regulator of virulence in Streptococcus agalactiae). Deletion of the rovS gene in the genome of S. agalactiae resulted in strain 6313 DeltarovS, which exhibited an increased attachment to immobilized fibrinogen and a significant increase in adherence to the eukaryotic lung epithelial cell line A549. Quantification of expression levels of known and putative S. agalactiae virulence genes by real-time PCR revealed that RovS influences the expression of fbsA, gbs0230, sodA, rogB, and the cyl operon. The altered gene expression in mutant 6313 DeltarovS was restored by plasmid-mediated expression of rovS, confirming the RovS deficiency as the cause for the observed changes in virulence gene expression in S. agalactiae. DNA electrophoretic mobility shift assays showed that RovS specifically binds to the promoter regions of fbsA, gbs0230, sodA, and the cyl operon, indicating that RovS directly regulates their expression. Deletion and mutation studies in the promoter region of fbsA, encoding the main fibrinogen receptor in S. agalactiae, identified a RovS DNA motif. Similar motifs were also found in the promoter regions of gbs0230, sodA, and the cyl operon, and alignments allowed us to propose a consensus sequence for the DNA-binding site of RovS.

Adherence to and invasion of human brain microvascular endothelial cells are promoted by fibrinogen-binding protein FbsA of Streptococcus agalactiae.

Streptococcus agalactiae is a frequent cause of bacterial sepsis and meningitis in neonates. During the course of infection, S. agalactiae colonizes and invades a number of host compartments, thereby interacting with different host tissues. Deletion of the fbsA gene, encoding the fibrinogen protein FbsA, significantly impaired the adherence and invasion of human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBMEC) by S. agalactiae. The adherence and invasiveness of an fbsA deletion mutant were restored by reintroducing the fbsA gene on an expression vector. Heterologous expression of fbsA in Lactococcus lactis enabled this bacterium to adhere to but not to invade HBMEC, suggesting that FbsA is a streptococcal adhesin. Finally, host cell adherence and invasion were significantly blocked in competition experiments with either purified FbsA fusion protein or a monoclonal antibody directed against the fibrinogen-binding epitope of FbsA. The S. agalactiae fbsA mutant induced a release of the neutrophil chemoattractant interleukin-8 (IL-8) equal to that induced by the wild type. Taken together, our studies demonstrate that FbsA promotes the adherence of S. agalactiae to HBMEC but that FbsA neither mediates the bacterial invasion into host cells nor plays a role in IL-8 release for HBMEC.

FbsA, a fibrinogen-binding protein from Streptococcus agalactiae, mediates platelet aggregation.

The bacterium Streptococcus agalactiae is an etiologic agent in the pathogenesis of endocarditis in humans. FbsA, a fibrinogen-binding protein produced by this pathogen, is considered an important virulence factor. In the present study we provide evidence that S agalactiae clinical isolates bearing FbsA attach to fibrinogen and elicit a fibrinogen-dependent aggregation of platelets. Mutants of S agalactiae lacking the fbsA gene lost the ability to attach to fibrinogen and to aggregate platelets. Plasmid-mediated expression of fbsA restored the capability for fibrinogen binding and platelet aggregation in S agalactiae fbsA mutants, and allowed Lactococcus lactis to interact with fibrinogen and to aggregate human platelets. Moreover, a monoclonal anti-FbsA antibody inhibited bacterial adherence to fibrinogen and S agalactiae-induced platelet aggregation. Platelet aggregation was inhibited by aspirin, prostaglandin E(1,) the peptide RGDS, and the antibody abciximab, demonstrating the specificity of platelet aggregation by S agalactiae and indicating an involvement of integrin glycoprotein IIb/IIIa in the induction of platelet aggregation. Aggregation was also dependent on anti-FbsA IgG and could be inhibited by an antibody against the platelet FcgammaRIIA receptor. These findings indicate that FbsA is a crucial factor in S agalactiae-induced platelet aggregation and may therefore play an important role in S agalactiae-induced endocarditis.

The fibrinogen receptor FbsA promotes adherence of Streptococcus agalactiae to human epithelial cells.

Streptococcus agalactiae is a major cause of bacterial pneumonia, sepsis, and meningitis in human neonates. During the course of infection, S. agalactiae adheres to a variety of epithelial cells but the underlying mechanisms are only poorly understood. The present report demonstrates the importance of the fibrinogen receptor FbsA for the streptococcal adherence and invasion of epithelial cells. Deletion of the fbsA gene in various S. agalactiae strains substantially reduced their binding of soluble fibrinogen and their adherence to and invasion of epithelial cells, indicating a role of FbsA in these different processes. The adherence and invasiveness of an fbsA deletion mutant were partially restored by reintroducing the fbsA gene on an expression vector. Heterologous expression of fbsA in Lactococcus lactis enabled this bacterium to adhere to but not to invade epithelial cells, suggesting that FbsA is a streptococcal adhesin. Flow cytometry experiments revealed a dose-dependent binding of FbsA to the surface of epithelial cells. Furthermore, tissue culture experiments exhibited an intimate contact of FbsA-coated latex beads with the surfaces of human epithelial cells. Finally, host cell adherence and invasion were significantly blocked in competition experiments with either purified FbsA protein or a monoclonal antibody directed against the fibrinogen-binding epitope of FbsA. Taken together, our studies demonstrate that FbsA promotes the adherence of S. agalactiae to epithelial cells but that FbsA does not mediate the bacterial invasion into host cells. Our results also indicate that fibrinogen-binding epitopes within FbsA are involved in the adherence of S. agalactiae to epithelial cells.

The novel fibrinogen-binding protein FbsB promotes Streptococcus agalactiae invasion into epithelial cells.

Streptococcus agalactiae is a major cause of bacterial sepsis and meningitis in human newborns. The interaction of S. agalactiae with host proteins and the entry into host cells thereby represent important virulence traits of these bacteria. The present report describes the identification of the fbsB gene, encoding a novel fibrinogen-binding protein that plays a crucial role in the invasion of S. agalactiae into human cells. In Western blots and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) experiments, the FbsB protein was demonstrated to interact with soluble and immobilized fibrinogen. Binding studies showed the N-terminal 388 residues of FbsB and the Aalpha-subunit of human fibrinogen to recognize each other. By reverse transcription (RT)-PCR, the fbsB gene was shown to be cotranscribed with the gbs0851 gene in S. agalactiae. Deletion of the fbsB gene in the genome of S. agalactiae did not influence the binding of the bacteria to fibrinogen, suggesting that FbsB does not participate in the attachment of S. agalactiae to fibrinogen. In tissue culture experiments, however, the fbsB deletion mutant was severely impaired in its invasion into lung epithelial cells. Bacterial invasion could be reestablished by introducing the fbsB gene on a shuttle plasmid into the fbsB deletion mutant. Furthermore, treatment of lung epithelial cells with FbsB fusion protein blocked S. agalactiae invasion of epithelial cells in a dose-dependent fashion. These results suggest an important role of the FbsB protein in the overall process of host cell entry by S. agalactiae.

Relevance of peptide uptake systems to the physiology and virulence of Streptococcus agalactiae.

Streptococcus agalactiae is a major cause of invasive infections in human newborns. To satisfy its growth requirements, S. agalactiae takes up 9 of the 20 proteinogenic amino acids from the environment. Defined S. agalactiae mutants in one or several of four putative peptide permease systems were constructed and tested for peptide uptake, growth in various media, and expression of virulence traits. Oligopeptide uptake by S. agalactiae was shown to be mediated by the ABC transporter OppA1-F, which possesses two substrate-binding proteins (OppA1 and OppA2) with overlapping substrate specificities. Dipeptides were found to be taken up in parallel by the oligopeptide permease OppA1-F, by the dipeptide ABC transporter DppA-E, and by the dipeptide symporter DpsA. Reverse transcription-PCR analysis revealed a polycistronic organization of the genes oppA1-F and dppA-E and a monocistronic organization of dpsA in S. agalactiae. The results of quantitative real-time PCR revealed a medium-dependent expression of the operons dppA-E and oppA1-F in S. agalactiae. Growth of S. agalactiae in human amniotic fluid was shown to require an intact dpsA gene, indicating an important role of DpsA during the infection of the amniotic cavity by S. agalactiae. Deletion of the oppB gene reduced the adherence of S. agalactiae to epithelial cells by 26%, impaired its adherence to fibrinogen and fibronectin by 42 and 33%, respectively, and caused a 35% reduction in expression of the fbsA gene, which encodes a fibrinogen-binding protein in S. agalactiae. These data indicate that the oligopeptide permease is involved in modulating virulence traits and virulence gene expression in S. agalactiae.

Acetate metabolism and its regulation in Corynebacterium glutamicum.

The amino acid producing Corynebacterium glutamicum grows aerobically on a variety of carbohydrates and organic acids as single or combined sources of carbon and energy. Among the substrates metabolized are glucose and acetate which both can also serve as substrates for amino acid production. Based on biochemical, genetic and regulatory studies and on quantitative determination of metabolic fluxes during utilization of acetate and/or glucose, this review summarizes the present knowledge on the different steps of the fundamental pathways of acetate utilization in C. glutamicum, namely, on acetate transport, acetate activation, tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, glyoxylate cycle and gluconeogenesis. It becomes evident that, although the pathways of acetate utilization follow the same theme in many bacteria, important biochemical, genetic and regulatory peculiarities exist in C. glutamicum. Recent genome wide and comparative expression analyses in C. glutamicum cells grown on glucose and on acetate substantiated previously identified transcriptional regulation of acetate activating enzymes and of glyoxylate cycle enzymes. Additionally, a variety of genes obviously also under transcriptional control in response to the presence or absence of acetate in the growth medium were uncovered. These genes, thus also belonging to the acetate stimulon of C. glutamicum, include genes coding for TCA cycle enzymes (e.g. aconitase and succinate dehydrogenase), for gluconeogenesis (phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase), for glycolysis (pyruvate dehydrogenase E1) and genes coding for proteins with hitherto unknown function. Although the basic mechanism of transcriptional regulation of the enzymes involved in acetate metabolism is not yet understood, some recent findings led to a better understanding of the adaptation of C. glutamicum to acetate at the molecular level.

Analysis of RogB-controlled virulence mechanisms and gene repression in Streptococcus agalactiae.

Streptococcus agalactiae is the leading cause of bacterial sepsis and meningitis in neonates and also the causative agent of different serious infections in immunocompromised adults. The wide range of diseases that are caused by S. agalactiae suggests regulatory mechanisms that control the formation of specific virulence factors in these bacteria. The present study describes a gene from S. agalactiae, designated rogB, encoding a protein with significant similarity to members of the RofA-like protein (RALP) family of transcriptional regulators. Disruption of the rogB gene in the genome of S. agalactiae resulted in mutant strain RGB1, which was impaired in its ability to bind to fibrinogen and fibronectin. Mutant RGB1 also exhibited a reduced adherence to human epithelial cells but did not show an altered invasion of eukaryotic cells. By real-time PCR analysis, mutant RGB1 revealed an increased expression of the cpsA gene, encoding a regulator of capsule gene expression. However, strain RGB1 exhibited a reduced expression of the rogB gene and of two adjacent genes, encoding putative virulence factors in S. agalactiae. Furthermore, mutant RGB1 was impaired in the expression of the fbsA gene, coding for a fibrinogen receptor from S. agalactiae. The altered gene expression in mutant RGB1 could be restored by plasmid-mediated expression of rogB, confirming a RogB deficiency as the cause for the observed changes in virulence gene expression in S. agalactiae. Reporter gene studies with a promotorless luciferase gene fused to fbsA allowed a growth-dependent analysis of fbsA expression in S. agalactiae. These reporter gene studies also suggest that RogB exerts a positive effect on fbsA expression in S. agalactiae.

Functional analysis of a PcsB-deficient mutant of group B streptococcus.

Group B streptococcus (GBS) is the major cause of bacterial sepsis and meningitis in neonates and poses a significant threat to parturient women. Recently, we identified in GBS the polypeptide PcsB, which is a protein required for cell separation of GBS, and which is also involved in the antibiotic sensitivity of these bacteria. In the present study, the introduction of the pcsB-carrying plasmid pATpcsB into the PcsB-deficient GBS mutant Sep1 restored the phenotype and the antibiotic susceptibility of this strain to that of the GBS wild-type. Although Northern blots revealed a four- to five-fold increased transcription of pcsB in pATpcsB-carrying GBS strains, overexpression of pcsB did not result in higher amounts of PcsB in the cell wall and in the culture supernatant of GBS, indicating regulatory mechanisms that control the translation or secretion of PcsB in these bacteria. In the culture supernatant of mutant Sep1 significant amounts of enolase were identified. As this protein was also present in extracts of cell wall-bound proteins from the GBS wild-type, it can be speculated that GBS can translocate enolase across the cytoplasmic membrane. Northern blot analysis exhibited similar expression of the enolase gene in the GBS strains 6313 and Sep1, indicating that mutant Sep1 is impaired in the anchoring of this protein to its cell wall.

Influence of proteins Bsp and FemH on cell shape and peptidoglycan composition in group B streptococcus.

Group B streptococcus (GBS) is surrounded by a capsule. However, little is known about peptidoglycan metabolism in these bacteria. In the present study, a 65 kDa protein was isolated from the culture supernatant of GBS and N-terminally sequenced, permitting isolation of the corresponding gene, termed bsp. The bsp gene was located close to another gene, designated femH, and reverse transcription-PCR revealed a bicistronic transcriptional organization for both genes. The Bsp protein was detected in the culture supernatant from 31 tested clinical isolates of GBS, suggesting a wide distribution of Bsp in these bacteria. Overexpression of bsp resulted in lens-shaped GBS cells, indicating a role for bsp in controlling cell morphology. Insertional disruption of femH resulted in a reduction of the L-alanine content of the peptidoglycan, suggesting that femH is involved in the incorporation of L-alanine residues in the interpeptide chain of the peptidoglycan of GBS.

A fibrinogen receptor from group B Streptococcus interacts with fibrinogen by repetitive units with novel ligand binding sites.

Group B Streptococcus (GBS) is a frequent cause of bacterial sepsis and meningitis in neonates. During the course of infection, GBS colonizes and invades a number of host compartments, thereby interacting with different host proteins. In the present report, we describe the isolation of the fbsA gene, which encodes a fibrinogen receptor from GBS. The deduced FbsA protein is characterized by repetitive units, each 16 amino acids in length. Sequencing of the fbsA gene from five different GBS strains revealed significant variation in the number of repeat-encoding units. The deletion of the fbsA gene in the genome of GBS 6313 completely abolished fibrinogen binding, suggesting that FbsA is the major fibrinogen receptor in this strain. Growth of the fbsA deletion mutant in human blood was significantly impaired, indicating that FbsA protects GBS from opsonophagocytosis. In Western blot experiments with truncated FbsA -proteins, the repeat region of FbsA was identified as mediating fibrinogen binding. Using synthetic peptides, even a single repeat unit of FbsA was demonstrated to bind to fibrinogen. Spot membrane analysis and competitive binding experiments with peptides carrying single amino acid substitutions allowed the prediction of a fibrinogen-binding motif with the consensus sequence G-N/S/T-V-L-A/E/M/Q-R-R-X-K/R/W-A/D/E/N/Q-A/F/I/L/V/Y-X-X-K/R-X-X.

Cloning, sequence analysis, expression and inactivation of the Corynebacterium glutamicum pta-ack operon encoding phosphotransacetylase and acetate kinase.

The Corynebacterium glutamicum ack and pta genes encoding the acetate-activating enzymes acetate kinase and phosphotransacetylase were isolated, subcloned on a plasmid and re-introduced into Corynebacterium glutamicum. Relative to the wild-type, the recombinant strains showed about tenfold higher specific activities of both enzymes. Sequence analysis of a 3657 bp DNA fragment revealed that the ack and pta genes are contiguous in the corynebacterial chromosome, with pta upstream and the last nucleotide of the pta stop codon (TAA) overlapping the first of the ack start codon (ATG). The predicted gene product of pta consists of 329 amino acids (Mr 35242), that of ack consists of 397 amino acids (Mr 43098) and the amino acid sequences of the two polypeptides show up to 60 % (phosphotransacetylase) and 53% (acetate kinase) identity in comparison with respective enzymes from other organisms. Northern (RNA) blot hybridizations using pta- and ack-specific probes and transcriptional cat fusion experiments revealed that the two genes are transcribed as a 2.5 kb bicistronic mRNA and that the expression of this operon is induced when Corynebacterium glutamicum grows on acetate instead of glucose as a carbon source. Directed inactivation of the chromosomal pta and ack genes led to the absence of detectable phosphotransacetylase and acetate kinase activity in the respective mutants and to their inability to grow on acetate. These data indicate that no isoenzymes of acetate kinase and phosphotransacetylase are present in Corynebacterium glutamicum and that a functional acetate kinase/phosphotransacetylase pathway is essential for growth of this organism on acetate.