Tetanus prophylaxis in horses: guidelines for New Zealand and Australia based on a critical appraisal of the evidence.

Horses are exquisitely sensitive to tetanus neurotoxin and are exposed to the risk of infection with Clostridium tetani throughout life. The vaccine against tetanus is highly effective at preventing disease, whereas tetanus in unvaccinated populations is associated with high mortality rates. Current guidelines in New Zealand and Australia for the available vaccine contain contradictions and limitations surrounding the optimal tetanus immunisation protocols for both adult horses and foals. This review critically evaluates the scientific literature on tetanus prophylaxis in horses within the context of equine practice and available products in New Zealand and Australia. The review was conducted by a panel of industry and specialist veterinarians to obtain agreement on nine equine tetanus prophylaxis guidelines for practising veterinarians. The primary protocol for tetanus toxoid (TT) immunisation consists of a three-dose series IM for all horses ≥ 6 months of age, and a four-dose series IM is proposed if commencing vaccination in foals between 3 and 6 months of age. Tetanus prophylaxis in foals < 3 months of age relies on passive immunity strategies. Following the completion of the primary protocol, a TT booster dose IM should be administered within 5 years, and every 5 years thereafter. When followed, these protocols should provide adequate protection against tetanus in horses. Additional tetanus prophylaxis guidelines are provided for veterinarians attending a horse experiencing a known "risk event" (e.g. wound, hoof abscess, surgery, umbilical infection). When a correctly vaccinated horse experiences a risk event, pre-existing immunity provides protection against tetanus. When an unvaccinated horse or one with unknown vaccination status, or a foal born to an unvaccinated dam, experiences a risk event, TT IM and tetanus antitoxin (TAT) 1,500 IU SC should be administered simultaneously at separate sites, and the TT primary immunisation protocol should subsequently be completed for the horse's respective age. In previously immunised pregnant broodmares, a TT booster dose administered 4-8 weeks prior to parturition optimises the transfer of passive immunity against tetanus to the newborn foal via colostrum; provided that post-natal IgG concentration in serum is > 800 mg/dL (8 g/L), such foals should be passively protected against tetanus up to 6 months of age. Survivors of clinical tetanus must still receive the primary protocol for vaccination against tetanus. In summary, all horses in New Zealand and Australia should be vaccinated against tetanus with protection maintained throughout life via TT booster doses, facilitated by accurate medical record keeping and client education.

Infrared spectroscopy of serum fails to identify early biomarker changes in an equine model of traumatic osteoarthritis.

OBJECTIVE: to determine the accuracy of infrared (IR)-based serum biomarker profiling to differentiate horses with early inflammatory changes associated with a traumatically induced model of equine carpal osteoarthritis (OA) from controls. METHOD: unilateral carpal OA was induced in 9 of 17 healthy Thoroughbred fillies, while the remainder served as sham operated controls. Serum samples were obtained before induction of OA (Day 0) and weekly thereafter until Day 63 from both groups. Films of dried serum were created, and IR absorbance spectra acquired. Following pre-processing, partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLSDA) and principal component analysis (PCA) were used to assess group and time differences and generate predictive models for wavenumber ranges 1300-1800 â€‹cm-1 and 2600-3700 â€‹cm-1. RESULTS: the overall correct classification rate when classifying samples by group (OA or Sham) was 52.7% (s.d. â€‹= â€‹12.8%), while it was 94.0% (s.d. â€‹= â€‹1.4%) by sampling Day. The correct classification results by group-sampling Day combinations with pre-intervention serum (Day 0) was 50.5% (s.d. â€‹= â€‹21.7%). CONCLUSION: with the current approach IR spectroscopic analysis could not differentiate serum of horses with induced carpal OA from that of controls. The high classification rate obtained by Day of sampling may reflect the effect of exercise on the biomarker profile. A longer study period (advanced disease) or naturally occurring disease may provide further information on the suitability of this technique in horses.

First report of pulmonary disease associated with Nicoletella semolina in a horse in New Zealand.

Case history: A 9-year-old warmblood gelding with a history of chronic intermittent tachypnoea and dyspnoea was presented for evaluation and removal of a mass on the left side of the neck. A fibrous mass adherent to the left jugular vein developed and was removed surgically 6 weeks later, at which time the owner requested an evaluation of the cause of the persistent respiratory signs first noted on primary admission. Clinical findings and treatment: Clinical findings included coarse lung sounds on thoracic auscultation, tracheal wheeze, and an abnormal trans-tracheal aspirate. These findings, in addition to the results of ultrasonographic imaging of the thorax and transtracheal cytology, were suggestive of bacterial bronchopneumonia. Initial antimicrobial therapy included I/M 22 mg/kg procaine penicillin every 12 hours and I/V 6.6 mg/kg gentamicin sulphate every 24 hours. The horse's clinical signs improved within 36 hours. It was discharged after 6 days, and at the owner's request antimicrobial therapy was changed to 25 mg/kg trimethoprim/sulphadimidine to be given orally every 12 hours for 10 days. One month later, the horse had recovered and there were no further complications reported by the owner except for an occasional cough while grazing Laboratory findings: Bacterial culture of transtracheal wash fluid resulted in the isolation of Nicoletella semolina as the sole organism, later confirmed by genotyping. Attempts to subculture the organism for antimicrobial susceptibility testing were unsuccessful. Diagnosis: Infectious bronchopneumonia associated with Nicoletella semolina Clinical relevance: Further work is required to determine whether N. semolina is acting as an opportunistic commensal of the equine respiratory tract or a primary pathogen. However, this article reports the first instance in New Zealand of an association between the presence of this organism and respiratory disease in a horse.

Isolates, antimicrobial susceptibility profiles and multidrug resistance of bacteria cultured from samples collected from sheep in New Zealand (2003-2016).

Aim: To describe the common species, antimicrobial susceptibility and multidrug resistance (MDR) of bacteria cultured from samples submitted to veterinary diagnostic laboratories from sheep in New Zealand between 2003 and 2016. Methods: Bacterial culture and antimicrobial susceptibility test data from June 2003 to March 2016 for animals identified as sheep were obtained from two commercial veterinary diagnostic laboratories in New Zealand. Submission information included animal signalment, geographic origin, specimen description, the organisms cultured, and where available, antimicrobial susceptibilities of the isolates. MDR was defined as any isolate with resistance to ≥3 antimicrobial classes. Results: There were 1,971 unique laboratory submissions, yielding 2,188 isolates. Of the 1,971 submissions, the most commonly represented breeds were Romney (933; 47.3%), Romney cross (264; 13.4%), and Coopworth (197; 10.0%), and there were more submissions from females (1,006; 51.0%) than males (184; 9.3%). Most submissions were from Canterbury (549; 27.9%), Southland (471; 23.9%), and Manawatu-Wanganui (272; 13.8%) regions. Other signalment data were inconsistently described. Submitted samples most commonly originated from the gastrointestinal tract (852; 43.2%), faeces (378; 12.1%), or liver (146; 7.4%). Of the 2,188 isolates, 1,771 (80.9%) were identified by species and 247 (11.4%) by genus, with the most common isolates being Salmonella spp. (880; 40.2%), Campylobacter spp. (408; 18.6%), Listeria spp. (140; 6.4%) and Yersinia spp. (113; 5.2%). Susceptibility results were available for 117/2,188 (5.3%) isolates from 51/1,971 (2.6%) submissions. No antimicrobial susceptibility data were available for Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., Listeria spp. or Yersinia spp. Overall for the isolates tested, susceptibility to the fluoroquinolones and tetracyclines was greatest, and MDR was found in 24/117 (20.5%) isolates. MDR was a more frequent finding for Enterococcus spp., Bacillus spp., and Proteus mirabilis, but was infrequent in isolates of Staphylococcus aureus, alpha-haemolytic streptococci, Escherichia coli or Enterobacter spp. Conclusions and clinical relevance: This is the first report on antimicrobial susceptibility and MDR for isolates from laboratory submissions from sheep in New Zealand. The low numbers of isolates submitted for antimicrobial susceptibility testing during the period studied mean that these findings provide limited insights into antimicrobial resistance in this population, and highlight the need to address significant gaps in our understanding of why veterinarians do not more frequently submit samples from sheep for bacterial culture and susceptibility testing. Abbreviation: AMR: Antimicrobial resistance; MDR: Multidrug resistance.

A pilot study to investigate the measurement of immunoglobulin A in Welsh Cob and Welsh Pony foals' faeces and their dam's milk.

Aims: To determine if an ELISA for measurement of IgA in equine serum could be used to measure concentrations of IgA in foal faeces and to determine correlations with concentrations in the milk of the dam.Methods: Faeces from 20 Welsh Cob and Welsh Pony foals and milk from their dams were collected within 12 hours (Day 0) and at 6 days after parturition (Day 6). On Day 6, faeces could not be collected from 2/20 foals, and milk samples could not be collected from 3/20 mares. An equine IgA ELISA validated for serum and plasma was used to measure concentrations of IgA in all samples in triplicate. The precision of the assay for each sample type was determined using modified CV.Results: IgA was not detectable in 7/20 Day 0 faecal samples and in 2/18 Day 6 faecal samples. For samples with detectable IgA, the mean modified CV was 10.5 (95% CI = 6.0-15.0)% for Day 0 faecal samples, and was 6.8 (95% CI = 4.3-9.4)% for Day 6 faecal samples. Median concentrations of IgA in faeces on Day 0 were lower than concentrations on Day 6 (0.7 mg/g vs. 37 mg/g dry matter; p = 0.003). Concentrations of IgA in milk and faeces on Day 6 were statistically correlated (r = 0.59; p = 0.006).Conclusions and clinical relevance: The IgA ELISA showed acceptable precision when used to estimate concentrations of IgA in foal faeces during the first week of life, but IgA could not be detected in 37% of meconium samples collected on Day 0. This assay may be useful for investigation of the role of maternal milk IgA in the gastrointestinal tract of neonatal foals, but further assessment of both accuracy and precision of the ELISA is required.

Infrared spectroscopy of serum as a potential diagnostic screening approach for naturally occurring canine osteoarthritis associated with cranial cruciate ligament rupture.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate infrared (IR) spectroscopy of serum as a screening tool to differentiate dogs affected by naturally occurring osteoarthritis (OA) associated with cranial cruciate ligament rupture (CrCLR) and controls. METHOD: 104 adult dogs with CrCLR (affected group) and 50 adult control dogs were recruited for this prospective observational study. Serum samples were collected preoperatively from CrCLR dogs and from a subset of these dogs at 4-, and 12-week post-surgical intervention to stabilize the affected stifles. Serum was collected once from control dogs. Dry films were made from serum samples, and IR absorbance spectra acquired. Data preprocessing, principal component analysis and multivariate analysis of covariance were performed to separate samples from the two groups, and to evaluate temporal differences. Weighted logistic regression with L1 regularization method was used to develop a predictive model. Model performance based on an independent test set was evaluated. RESULTS: Spectral data analysis revealed significant separation between the sera of CrCLR and control dogs (P < 0.0001), but not amongst different time points in the OA group. The sensitivity, specificity, AUC and accuracy of the test set were 84.62%, 96.15%, 93.20% and 92.31% respectively. CONCLUSIONS: These findings confirm the potential of IR-spectroscopy of serum with chemometrics methods to differentiate controls from dogs with OA associated with CrCLR. This is the first step in development of an economic, and comparatively simple IR-based screening serum test for OA. Utility of this tool as a clinical screening and diagnostic test requires further investigation and validation.

Bacterial isolates, antimicrobial susceptibility and multidrug resistance in cultures from samples collected from beef and pre-production dairy cattle in New Zealand (2003-2016).

Aims: To describe the common species and the antimicrobial susceptibility of bacteria cultured from samples submitted to commercial veterinary diagnostic laboratories from beef and pre-production dairy cattle between 2003-2016, and to describe the proportion of isolates with multidrug resistance (MDR). Methods: Bacterial culture and antimicrobial susceptibility data from July 2003 to March 2016 were obtained from commercial veterinary diagnostic laboratories in New Zealand. Results were included from samples from beef cattle, irrespective of age or sex, dairy-breed females aged <2 years and dairy-breed males of any age. Submission information provided included the specimen description, the organisms cultured, and the antimicrobial susceptibilities of isolates, if tested. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) was defined as any isolate not showing susceptibility to an antimicrobial compound and MDR as any isolate showing AMR to ≥3 antimicrobial classes. Results: There were 1,858 unique laboratory submissions, yielding 2,739 isolates. Of these submissions, most were from the Canterbury (389; 21.9%), Manawatu (388; 21.9%) Waikato (231; 12.4%) and Hawke's Bay (136; 7.3%) regions. There were 163 unique species identifications for the 2,739 isolates; the most common were Yersinia pseudotuberculosis (452; 16.5%), Campylobacter jejuni (249; 9.1%), Escherichia coli (230; 8.4%) and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (143; 5.2%). Only 251/2,739 (9.2%) isolates from 122/1,858 (6.6%) submissions had antimicrobial susceptibility results. There were no sensitivity results for Yersinia spp., and only one each for Salmonella spp., and Campylobacter spp. Amongst the isolates tested, susceptibility to ampicillin was lowest (33/56; 58.9%). Overall, 57/251 (20.7%) isolates tested for antimicrobial susceptibility had MDR, and MDR was most common for Enterococcus spp. (12/17; 71%) and E. coli (13/30; 43%). Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: This is the first report on antimicrobial susceptibility and MDR in New Zealand beef and pre-production dairy cattle. Findings highlight the limited use of bacterial culture and sensitivity testing by veterinarians and deficits in the information accompanying submissions. A national antimicrobial resistance surveillance strategy that specifically includes this population is recommended.

Usefulness of digital and optical refractometers for the diagnosis of failure of transfer of passive immunity in neonatal foals.

BACKGROUND: Neonatal foals with failure of transfer of passive immunity (FTPI) are at higher risk of morbidity and mortality. Successful treatment of FTPI is time-dependent, thus rapid and accurate measurement of serum IgG concentration is important for the management and care of neonatal foals. OBJECTIVES: To validate the use of digital and optical refractometers for assessing FTPI in neonatal foals and compare the diagnostic performance and level of agreement of the two refractometers to the reference standard radial immunodiffusion (RID) assay. STUDY DESIGN: A retrospective validation study. METHODS: Serum samples (n = 253) were collected from 230 foals admitted to the Veterinary Teaching Hospital and Ambulatory Equine Service between 2012 and 2017. The serum IgG concentrations were measured by the reference RID assay, digital Brix and optical refractometers. The correlation between results of two refractometers and RID assay was assessed. A receiver operating characteristic curve was created and used to identify the optimal cut-offs for evaluating sensitivity and specificity of the two refractometers to detect foals with complete and partial FTPI. RESULTS: The RID-IgG concentrations were positively correlated with the Brix scores obtained from a digital refractometer (r = 0.73, P = 0.001) and serum total protein obtained from an optical refractometer (r = 0.72, P = 0.001). The sensitivity and specificity of the digital Brix refractometer at optimal cut-off (≤7.8% Brix) were 88.1 (95% CI: 74.4-96.0) and 67.7% (95% CI: 60.6-74.3) to detect RID-IgG<4 g/L and 79.0 (95% CI: 68.5-87.3) and 77.3% (95% CI: 69.8-83.8) to detect RID-IgG≤8 g/L, respectively. The sensitivity and specificity of the optical refractometer at optimal cut-off (≤42 g/L) were 86.1 (95% CI: 72.1-94.7) and 70.9% (95% CI: 63.9-77.3) to detect RID-IgG<4 g/L and at cut-off (≤44 g/L) were 82.9 (95% CI: 73.0-90.3) and 72.7% (95% CI: 64.8-79.6) to detect RID-IgG≤8 g/L, respectively. MAIN LIMITATIONS: The number of diseased foals was small to investigate the validity of the selected cut-off values for assessing FTPI in sick foals. CONCLUSIONS: The two refractometers exhibit utility as rapid, inexpensive screening tests and have a good sensitivity for assessing FTPI in neonatal foals.

Metabolic repair through emergence of new pathways in Escherichia coli.

Escherichia coli can derive all essential metabolites and cofactors through a highly evolved metabolic system. Damage of pathways may affect cell growth and physiology, but the strategies by which damaged metabolic pathways can be circumvented remain intriguing. Here, we use a ΔpanD (encoding for aspartate 1-decarboxylase) strain of E. coli that is unable to produce the ß-alanine required for CoA biosynthesis to demonstrate that metabolic systems can overcome pathway damage by extensively rerouting metabolic pathways and modifying existing enzymes for unnatural functions. Using directed cell evolution, rewiring and repurposing of uracil metabolism allowed formation of an alternative ß-alanine biosynthetic pathway. After this pathway was deleted, a second was evolved that used a gain-of-function mutation on ornithine decarboxylase (SpeC) to alter reaction and substrate specificity toward an oxidative decarboxylation-deamination reaction. After deletion of both pathways, yet another independent pathway emerged using polyamine biosynthesis, demonstrating the vast capacity of metabolic repair.

Directed strain evolution restructures metabolism for 1-butanol production in minimal media.

Engineering a microbial strain for production sometimes entails metabolic modifications that impair essential physiological processes for growth or production. Restoring these functions may require amending a variety of non-obvious physiological networks, and thus, rational design strategies may not be practical. Here we demonstrate that growth and production may be restored by evolution that repairs impaired metabolic function. Furthermore, we use genomics, metabolomics and proteomics to identify several underlying mutations and metabolic perturbations that allow metabolism to repair. Previously, high titers of butanol production were achieved by Escherichia coli using a growth-coupled, modified Clostridial CoA-dependent pathway after all native fermentative pathways were deleted. However, production was only observed in rich media. Native metabolic function of the host was unable to support growth and production in minimal media. We use directed cell evolution to repair this phenotype and observed improved growth, titers and butanol yields. We found a mutation in pcnB which resulted in decreased plasmid copy numbers and pathway enzymes to balance resource utilization. Increased protein abundance was measured for biosynthetic pathways, glycolytic enzymes have increased activity, and adenosyl energy charge was increased. We also found mutations in the ArcAB two-component system and integration host factor (IHF) that tune redox metabolism to alter byproduct formation. These results demonstrate that directed strain evolution can enable systematic adaptations to repair metabolic function and enhance microbial production. Furthermore, these results demonstrate the versatile repair capabilities of cell metabolism and highlight important aspects of cell physiology that are required for production in minimal media.

Horse-keeping practices in Australia: findings from a national online survey of horse owners.

OBJECTIVE: To gain an understanding of general horse-keeping practices in Australia, including shelter, social contact, exercise, watering and supplementary feeding. METHODS: An online survey was conducted with 505 owners in relation to one 'representative' horse in their care. RESULTS: The majority (83%) of horses were managed at pasture. Approximately one-quarter of those horses were housed alone (26%) or with one companion animal (27%). If horses were confined to a stable or small yard, the most recorded means of exercise was riding (65%) at a daily frequency (60%). Over half of the horse owners provided water in a trough or drinker with an automatic refill system (58%) and most horse owners supplied hay to their horses (82%), most commonly in combination with grazing. Areas of potential concern included one-quarter of stabled horses being prevented from unmediated social and physical contact with conspecifics and one-fifth of stabled horses being exercised less than daily. CONCLUSION: The horse-keeping profile in this study should be considered in the public communication of guidelines as well as interactions between veterinarians and clients.

Comparison of an alcohol-based hand sanitation product with a traditional chlorhexidine hand scrub technique for hand hygiene preparation in an equine hospital.

AIMS: To investigate the efficacy of an alcohol gel-based hand antisepsis protocol compared with a traditional chlorhexidine-based protocol under conditions of routine clinical contamination, and following heavy faecal contamination. METHODS: Twelve adult participants were recruited and on four separate days completed a hand sanitation protocol using a chlorhexidine scrub or an alcohol-based gel, with hands that were grossly clean but contaminated or with faecal contamination. Bacterial samples were obtained from participants' hands before sanitation, immediately after and then 2 hours later. All samples were cultured on blood and MacConkey agar and bacterial colonies counted after 48 hours. RESULTS: for clean contaminated hands, the percentage reduction in bacterial colonies on blood agar immediately after hand sanitation was similar for both protocols (p=0.3), but was greater for the alcohol gel than chlorhexidine after 2 hours (p=0.005). For hands with faecal contamination, the percentage reduction in bacterial colonies on blood agar was similar for both protocols immediately and 2 hours after sanitation (p>0.2), but positive cultures were obtained on blood agar from samples collected after both protocols, for almost all participants. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate equivalent efficacy of the alcohol-based gel and the pre-surgical chlorhexidine protocol. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The alcohol-based gel protocol is an effective hand asepsis technique for grossly clean contaminated hands and those following faecal contamination, with comparable efficacy to chlorhexidine based scrub.

Evaluation of a caudolateral approach for arthrocentesis and injection of the equine elbow joint.

The objectives of this study were to evaluate the likelihood of successful arthrocentesis of the equine elbow joint using the caudolateral approach and to determine if the deep branch of the radial nerve (DBRN) varies in its proximity to the site of centesis. Methylene blue (MB) was injected into 71 elbow joint specimens immediately caudal to the lateral collateral ligament using a 3.8-cm needle advanced to its hub. The elbow joints were dissected, staining of the synovial structures assessed and the proximity of DBRN to the site of centesis evaluated. The articular cartilage of all 71 joints was stained with MB. The location of DBRN did not vary substantially among the specimens and did not course close to the site of centesis. Direct communication was found between the bursa of the tendon of the ulnaris lateralis muscle and the elbow joint in 41 of 71 specimens (57.8 per cent). The caudolateral approach for centesis of the equine elbow joint, performed by inserting a needle 3.8-cm, was found to be reliable. Radial nerve paralysis reported to be caused by injection of local anaesthetic solution using the caudolateral approach may be due to diffusion of the solution from the dorsal pouch rather than from leakage at the site of centesis.

Antimicrobial susceptibility of bacteria isolated from neonatal foal samples submitted to a New Zealand veterinary pathology laboratory (2004 to 2013).

AIMS: To describe antimicrobial susceptibility, and identify antimicrobial resistance (AMR), in bacteria isolated from New Zealand foals. METHODS: A database search was performed of submissions to a veterinary pathology laboratory between April 2004 and December 2013 for bacterial culture of samples from foals <3 weeks of age. Culture and susceptibility results were compiled with demographic information. Susceptibility results were as defined for the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion susceptibility test based on Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute guidelines. Multi-drug resistance (MDR) was defined as non-susceptibility to ≥3 of a panel of antimicrobials (ceftiofur, enrofloxaxin, gentamicin, penicillin, tetracycline, trimethoprim-sulfonamide); penicillin susceptibility was not included for Gram-negative isolates. RESULTS: Submissions from 102 foals were examined, and 127 bacterial isolates were cultured from 64 (63%) foals. Of the 127 isolates, 32 (25%) were Streptococcus spp., 30 (24%) were Staphylococcus spp., 12 (10%) were Enterococcus spp. and 26 (21%) were Escherichia coli. Of 83 Gram-positive isolates, 57 (69%) were susceptible to penicillin. Over all isolates, 92/126 (73%) were susceptible to gentamicin and 117/126 (93%) to enrofloxacin; 62/82 (76%) of Gram-positive, and 22/42 (52%) of Gram-negative bacteria were susceptible to ceftiofur; 53/81 (65%) of Gram-positive, and 23/44 (52%) of Gram-negative bacteria were susceptible to tetracycline; 59/82 (72%) of Gram-positive, and 23/44 (43%) of Gram-negative bacteria were susceptible to trimethoprim-sulfonamide. Of 126 isolates, 33 (26%) had MDR; >1 isolate with MDR was cultured from 24/64 (38%) foals, and ≥2 isolates with MDR were recovered from 8/64 (13%) foals. CONCLUSIONS: Multi-drug resistance, including resistance to commonly used antimicrobials, was found in bacterial isolates from foals in New Zealand. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The results of this study are of concern from a treatment perspective as they indicate a potential for antimicrobial treatment failure. For future surveillance of AMR and the creation of national guidelines, it is important to record more data on samples submitted for bacterial culture.

A cross-sectional survey on wounds in horses in New Zealand.

AIM: To determine the frequency and type of skin wounds encountered by New Zealand veterinarians in their equine patients, the duration and estimated costs of treatment as well as the expected outcomes for these wounds. METHODS: An online survey was sent to all veterinarians registered with the New Zealand Equine Veterinary Association. The survey comprised questions on the location and experience of respondents, the number of wound-related cases in relation to the total equine caseload, the type and anatomical location of wounds treated, the frequency, duration and costs of treatments, the outcome of wound treatment and an estimate of the most common causes of death or euthanasia in their equine patients. RESULTS: The survey response rate was 110/262 (41.9%). The median number of equine cases seen by respondents was 20 (interquartile range (IQR) 6-60) per month; of these, five (IQR 2-10) were wound related. Wounds ranked third after lameness and respiratory disease for the relative frequency with which respondents encountered them. Of 102 respondents 59 (58%) reported that their clients frequently treated wounds incurred by their horse without consulting a veterinarian. Wounds on the distal limb, whether involving only the skin or also deeper structures, were reported by 86/101 (85%) respondents as the most frequently encountered. Wounds in this location also incurred the longest treatment period and were the most prone to develop complications. Finally, wounds ranked second, after colic, as the most common cause of death/euthanasia in the veterinary respondents' equine patients. CONCLUSIONS: The data obtained via the survey indicate that skin wounds, particularly on the distal limb, are a common occurrence in horses in New Zealand and, when they involve structures underlying the skin, are costly and time-consuming to manage and may lead to decreased performance, retirement or euthanasia. Consequently, we recommend that more effort be devoted to the education of equine veterinarians and owners, and that appropriate research funds be allocated to help improve patient outcomes.

A prospective observational study of needle-handling practices at a University Veterinary Teaching Hospital.

AIM: To determine the period prevalence of needlestick injury (NSI) at the Massey University Veterinary Teaching Hospital (VTH) and to identify handling and disposal practices that may contribute to the risk of NSI. METHODS: Observations of personnel were conducted in the equine (EVH) and companion animal (CAH) clinics of the VTH during scheduled clinical activities over 9- and 10-day periods, respectively. The number and type of NSI incidents, needle uncapping, capping and disposal events were recorded for veterinarians, nurses and other personnel (visitors and students). The number of needle-related practices, as a proportion of observations, were compared between CAH and EVH, and veterinarians, nurses and others using χ(2) tests. RESULTS: Needlestick injury was not observed during 190 and 163 needle handling and disposal observations in the CAH and EVH, respectively. Uncapping of needles by mouth was observed and was practised more by veterinarians (15/119; 13%) than nurses (2/42; 5%) and others (6/193; 3%) (p=0.001). Two-handed needle recapping after use was observed 265/354 times, and the one handed scooping technique was rarely observed (8/352). In the case of needle disposal, EVH workers used a container that was not purpose built for disposal more than CAH staff (p=0.02), or placed them in a pocket more frequently (p=0.003). Needle disposal containers were available on adjacent bench tops for 65/190 (34%) CAH observations, but no EVH observations. For 51/163 (31%) EVH observations the needle disposal containers were located on the ground, whereas none were observed there in the CAH. No approved sharps containers were observed in the immediate EVH and CAH work areas for 47/163 (28.8%) and 1/191 (0.5%) needle-handling activities, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Unsafe needle-handling practices must be reduced by policies and training programmes to encourage safe needle-related practices, and ensuring that approved sharps containers are available in close proximity to where needles are used.

Clinical Research Abstracts of the British Equine Veterinary Association Congress 2015.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Decreased efficacy of veterinary antimicrobials and increased prevalence of multi-drug resistance (MDR) is of concern, but little is known of antimicrobial resistance encompassing the New Zealand (NZ) equine population. Recent concerns have arisen over the emergence of multi-resistant bacteria [1], especially on NZ stud farms where antibiotics are frequently used for respiratory disease without veterinary input [2]. OBJECTIVES: To describe bacterial culture and antimicrobial sensitivity results from respiratory samples submitted of young horses (4 weeks to 3 years old). STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective study of clinical pathology records. METHODS: A database search for isolates and sensitivity of respiratory samples from young horses (April 2004-July 2014) was conducted. The results of in vitro sensitivity testing by Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion were tabulated for major bacterial species isolated. Multiple correspondence analysis was used to describe clustering of multi-drug resistance (MDR) and selected demographic variables. RESULTS: 237/289 eligible respiratory samples had at least one aerobic bacterial isolate. Most of the 774 bacterial isolates were Gram-positive (68%). Streptococcus species were the most common genus isolated (40% of isolates). Sensitivity of Streptococcus spp. to penicillin, gentamicin and ceftiofur was >85%, but only 53% to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxone. Gram-negative sensitivity to ceftiofur, tetracycline, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxone was <75%. MDR was found for 16% of isolates and in 39% of horses. CONCLUSIONS: Penicillin is an appropriate first-line antimicrobial for use in most NZ young horses with suspected bacterial respiratory infection. However, based on findings of MDR, submission of samples for culture and monitoring of sensitivity should be used to inform antimicrobial selection. Ethical animal research: Not applicable. Sources of funding: Massey University McGeorge Fund; New Zealand Equine Research Foundation. Competing interests: None declared.

Antimicrobial Susceptibilities of Aerobic Isolates from Respiratory Samples of Young New Zealand Horses.

BACKGROUND: Decreased efficacy of antimicrobials and increased prevalence of multidrug resistance (MDR) is of concern worldwide. OBJECTIVES: To describe and analyze bacterial culture and antimicrobial susceptibilities from respiratory samples submitted from young horses (4 weeks to 3 years old). ANIMALS: Samples from 289 horses were submitted to a commercial laboratory. METHODS: A retrospective database search of submissions made to a New Zealand veterinary laboratory between April 2004 and July 2014. The results of in vitro susceptibility testing by Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion were described and tabulated for the major bacterial species isolated. Multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) was used to describe the clustering of MDR isolates and selected demographic variables. RESULTS: Overall, 774 bacterial isolates were cultured from 237 horses, the majority of these isolates were gram-positive (67.6%; 95% CI 64.3-70.9%). Streptococcus spp. were the most common genus of bacteria isolated and were 40.1% (95% CI 36.6-43.5%) of the isolates cultured. Susceptibility of Streptococcus spp. to penicillin, gentamicin, and ceftiofur was >85%. Overall, gram-negative susceptibility to ceftiofur, tetracycline, and TMPS was <75%. MDR was defined as resistance to 3 or more antimicrobials, and was found in 39.2% of horses (93/237; 95% CI 33.0-45.5%). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Culture and susceptibility results have highlighted that MDR is an emerging problem for young horses in New Zealand (NZ), where a bacterial respiratory infection is suspected. This should be considered when prescribing antimicrobials, and emphasizes the need for submission of samples for culture and susceptibility.

Use of Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy to quantify immunoglobulin G concentration and an analysis of the effect of signalment on levels in canine serum.

Deficiency in immunoglobulin G (IgG) is associated with an increased susceptibility to infections in humans and animals, and changes in IgG levels occur in many disease states. In companion animals, failure of transfer of passive immunity is uncommonly diagnosed but mortality rates in puppies are high and more than 30% of these deaths are secondary to septicemia. Currently, radial immunodiffusion (RID) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays are the most commonly used methods for quantitative measurement of IgG in dogs. In this study, a Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) assay for canine serum IgG was developed and compared to the RID assay as the reference standard. Basic signalment data and health status of the dogs were also analyzed to determine if they correlated with serum IgG concentrations based on RID results. Serum samples were collected from 207 dogs during routine hematological evaluation, and IgG concentrations determined by RID. The FTIR assay was developed using partial least squares regression analysis and its performance evaluated using RID assay as the reference test. The concordance correlation coefficient was 0.91 for the calibration model data set and 0.85 for the prediction set. A Bland-Altman plot showed a mean difference of -89 mg/dL and no systematic bias. The modified mean coefficient of variation (CV) for RID was 6.67%, and for FTIR was 18.76%. The mean serum IgG concentration using RID was 1943 ± 880 mg/dL based on the 193 dogs with complete signalment and health data. When age class, gender, breed size and disease status were analyzed by multivariable ANOVA, dogs < 2 years of age (p = 0.0004) and those classified as diseased (p = 0.03) were found to have significantly lower IgG concentrations than older and healthy dogs, respectively.

Use of Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy to quantify immunoglobulin G concentrations in alpaca serum.

BACKGROUND: Rapid, economical, and quantitative assays for measurement of camelid serum immunoglobulin G (IgG) are limited. In camelids, failure of transfer of maternal immunoglobulins has a reported prevalence of up to 20.5%. An accurate method for quantifying serum IgG concentrations is required. OBJECTIVE: To develop an infrared spectroscopy-based assay for measurement of alpaca serum IgG and compare its performance to the reference standard radial immunodiffusion (RID) assay. ANIMALS: One hundred and seventy-five privately owned, healthy alpacas. METHODS: Eighty-two serum samples were collected as convenience samples during routine herd visits whereas 93 samples were recruited from a separate study. Serum IgG concentrations were determined by RID assays and midinfrared spectra were collected for each sample. Fifty samples were set aside as the test set and the remaining 125 training samples were employed to build a calibration model using partial least squares (PLS) regression with Monte Carlo cross validation to determine the optimum number of PLS factors. The predictive performance of the calibration model was evaluated by the test set. RESULTS: Correlation coefficients for the IR-based assay were 0.93 and 0.87, respectively, for the entire data set and test set. Sensitivity in the diagnosis of failure of transfer of passive immunity (FTPI) ([IgG] <1,000 mg/dL) was 71.4% and specificity was 100% for the IR-based method (test set) as gauged relative to the RID reference method assay. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: This study indicated that infrared spectroscopy, in combination with chemometrics, is an effective method for measurement of IgG in alpaca serum.