The Type I Interferon Pathway Is Upregulated in the Cutaneous Lesions and Blood of Multibacillary Leprosy Patients With Erythema Nodosum Leprosum.

In leprosy patients, acute inflammatory episodes, known as erythema nodosum leprosum (ENL), are responsible for high morbidity and tissue damage that occur during the course of Mycobacterium leprae infection. In a previous study, we showed evidence implicating DNA-sensing via TLR9 as an important inflammatory pathway in ENL. A likely important consequence of TLR9 pathway activation is the production of type I interferons (IFN-I) by plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs), also implicated in the pathogenesis of several chronic inflammatory diseases. In this study, we investigated whether the IFN-I pathway is activated during ENL. Blood samples and skin lesions from multibacillary patients diagnosed with ENL were collected and the expression of genes of the IFN-I pathway and interferon-stimulated genes were compared with samples collected from non-reactional multibacillary (NR) patients. Whole blood RNAseq analysis suggested higher activation of the IFN-I pathway in ENL patients, confirmed by RT-qPCR. Likewise, significantly higher mRNA levels of IFN-I-related genes were detected in ENL skin biopsies when compared to NR patient lesions. During thalidomide administration, the drug of choice for ENL treatment, a decrease in the mRNA and protein levels of some of these genes both in the skin and blood was observed. Indeed, in vitro assays showed that thalidomide was able to block the secretion of IFN-I by peripheral blood mononuclear cells in response to M. leprae sonicate or CpG-A, a TLR9 ligand. Finally, the decreased frequencies of peripheral pDCs in ENL patients, along with the higher TLR9 expression in ENL pDCs and the enrichment of CD123+ cells in ENL skin lesions, suggest the involvement of these cells as IFN-I producers in this type of reaction. Taken together, our data point to the involvement of the pDC/type I IFN pathway in the pathogenesis of ENL, opening new avenues in identifying biomarkers for early diagnosis and new therapeutic targets for the better management of this reactional episode.

Mycobacterium leprae Induces Neutrophilic Degranulation and Low-Density Neutrophil Generation During Erythema Nodosum Leprosum.

Erythema Nodosum Leprosum (ENL) is a recurrent acute inflammatory complication of leprosy affecting up to 50% of all Borderline Lepromatous and Lepromatous Leprosy (BL/LL) patients. Although ENL is described as an immune reaction mediated by neutrophils, studies demonstrating the direct role of neutrophils in ENL are still rare. One subpopulation of low-density neutrophils (LDNs), present within the fraction of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), has been associated with the pathogenesis and severity of diseases like sepsis, lupus, and tuberculosis. We herein analyzed LDNs and high-density neutrophils (HDNs) in terms of frequency, phenotype, and morphology. Serum levels of MMP-9 (a neutrophilic degranulation marker) were evaluated by ELISA; and LDNs were generated in vitro by stimulating healthy-donor, whole-blood cultures. PBMC layers of ENL patients presented segmented/hypersegmented cells that were morphologically compatible with neutrophils. Immunofluorescence analyses identified LDNs in ENL. Flow cytometry confirmed the elevated frequency of circulating LDNs (CD14-CD15+) in ENL patients compared to healthy donors and nonreactional Borderline Tuberculoid (BT) patients. Moreover, flow cytometry analyses revealed that ENL LDNs had a neutrophilic-activated phenotype. ENL patients under thalidomide treatment presented similar frequency of LDNs as observed before treatment but its activation status was lower. In addition, Mycobacterium leprae induced in vitro generation of LDNs in whole blood in a dose-dependent fashion; and TGF-ß, an inhibitor of neutrophilic degranulation, prevented LDNs generation. MMP-9 serum levels of BL/LL patients with or without ENL correlated with LDNs frequency at the same time that ultrastructural observations of ENL LDNs showed suggestive signs of degranulation. Together, our data provide new insights into the knowledge and understanding of the pathogenesis of ENL while enriching the role of neutrophils in leprosy.

Erythema Nodosum Leprosum Neutrophil Subset Expressing IL-10R1 Transmigrates into Skin Lesions and Responds to IL-10.

Erythema nodosum leprosum (ENL) is an inflammatory complication in leprosy. Yet, the involvement of ENL neutrophils in the inflammatory response against Mycobacterium leprae remains poorly explored. Our primary aim was to investigate the utility of the surface expression of neutrophil IL-10R1 as an ENL biomarker and, secondarily, to evaluate whether leprosy or healthy M. leprae-stimulated neutrophils produce cytokines and are able to respond to IL-10. We, in this study, describe a subpopulation of circulating neutrophils of ENL patients that exclusively expressed IL-10R1, providing evidence that IL-10R1+ neutrophils are present in ENL lesions. It was also found that ENL neutrophils, but not those of nonreactional leprosy controls, were able to secret detectable levels of TNF ex vivo and the addition of IL-10 blocked TNF release. It was likewise observed that M. leprae-stimulated, healthy neutrophils expressed IL-10R1 in vitro, and ENL-linked cytokines were released by M. leprae-cultured neutrophils in vitro. Moreover, consistent with the presence of a fully functional IL-10R, the addition of IL-10 prevented the release of M. leprae-induced cytokines. Most importantly, dead M. leprae revealed its superior capacity to induce CCL4 and IL-8 in primary neutrophils over live Mycobacterium, suggesting that M. leprae may hamper the inflammatory machinery as an immune escape mechanism.

Neutrophil extracellular traps contribute to the pathogenesis of leprosy type 2 reactions.

Up to 50% of patients with the multibacillary form of leprosy are expected to develop acute systemic inflammatory episodes known as type 2 reactions (T2R), thus aggravating their clinical status. Thalidomide rapidly improves T2R symptoms. But, due to its restricted use worldwide, novel alternative therapies are urgently needed. The T2R triggering mechanisms and immune-inflammatory pathways involved in its pathology remain ill defined. In a recent report, we defined the recognition of nucleic acids by TLR9 as a major innate immunity pathway that is activated during T2R. DNA recognition has been described as a major inflammatory pathway in several autoimmune diseases, and neutrophil DNA extracellular traps (NETs) have been shown to be a prime source of endogenous DNA. Considering that neutrophil abundance is a marked characteristic of T2R lesions, the objective of this study was to investigate NETs production in T2R patients based on the hypothesis that the excessive NETs formation would play a major role in T2R pathogenesis. Abundant NETs were found in T2R skin lesions, and increased spontaneous NETs formation was observed in T2R peripheral neutrophils. Both the M. leprae whole-cell sonicate and the CpG-Hlp complex, mimicking a mycobacterial TLR9 ligand, were able to induce NETs production in vitro. Moreover, TLR9 expression was shown to be higher in T2R neutrophils, suggesting that DNA recognition via TLR9 may be one of the pathways triggering this process during T2R. Finally, treatment of T2R patients with thalidomide for 7 consecutive days resulted in a decrease in all of the evaluated in vivo and ex vivo NETosis parameters. Altogether, our findings shed light on the pathogenesis of T2R, which, it is hoped, will contribute to the emergence of novel alternative therapies and the identification of prognostic reactional markers in the near future.

Análise do envolvimento do interferon tipo I na imunopatogênese do eritema nodoso hanseniano / Analysis of type I interferro involvement in the immunopathogenesis of erythema nodosum leprosum

A forma multibacilar da hanseníase pode apresentar manifestações inflamatórias agudas, conhecidas como episódios reacionais. Um desses episódios é o eritema nodoso hanseniano (ENH), considerado o quadro clínico mais grave da hanseníase, sendo caracterizado pelo aparecimento abrupto de múltiplas lesões novas, sintomas sistêmicos e agravamento da neuropatia. A talidomida é o fármaco de escolha para o tratamento e tem efeito benéfico num curto período de tempo. Dados recentes do nosso grupo demonstram uma maior expressão de TLR-9, tanto nas lesões como no sangue de pacientes ENH. Uma consequência importante da ativação da via de TLR-9 é a produção de IFN tipo I, especialmente o IFN-α. Essa citocina tem sido implicada na patogênese de várias doenças inflamatórias crônicas com intercorrências agudas, como a psoríase e o lúpus eritematoso sistêmico, contribuindo para uma desregulação da imunidade inata e adquirida e amplificação do processo inflamatório. Baseado nos dados acima citados, este estudo teve como objetivo analizar a participação de IFN-I na patogênese do ENH. Para alcançar este objetivo, amostras de sangue e lesões de pele de pacientes com as formas multibacilares sem reação (grupo LL/BL) e com diagnóstico da reação antes de iniciar o tratamento com talidomida (grupo ENH D0) foram coletadas. Também analisamos amostras clínicas de pacientes ENH após 7 dias de tratamento com talidomida (grupo ENH D7) para avaliar o impacto deste medicamento na via de IFN-I. Foram realizados ensaios de imunofluorescência e PCR em tempo real para investigar, respectivamente, a presença de IFN-α e a expressão de genes de assinatura de IFN-I (EIF2AK2, MX1 e IFIT-1).

Além disso, os níveis da proteína MX1 na lesão cutânea foram analisados através de western blotting. Os resultados de expressão gênica indicam níveis mais elevados de RNAm de EIF2AK2 tanto na lesão cutânea como no sangue de pacientes ENH D0. Já no que se refere aos genes MX1 e IFIT-1 não houve diferença entre os grupos. O tratamento com a talidomida resultou na diminuição da expressão dos genes EIF2AK2 e MX1. Os níveis proteicos de MX1 se mostraram elevados nos pacientes LL/BL e ENH D0, com uma diminuição após o tratamento com a talidomida. Imagens de imunofluorescência sugerem a presença de um maior número de células produtoras de IFN-α nas lesões de pacientes ENH D0 quando comparadas a LL/BL, ocorrendo uma diminuição drástica após 7 dias de tratamento com talidomida. Finalmente, confirmamos que o IFN-α possui a capacidade de induzir a NETose em neutrófilos de indivíduos sadios. Em conjunto esses resultados sugerem o envolvimento do IFN do tipo I na patogênese do ENH, abrindo perspectivas para a identificação de biomarcadores para o diagnóstico precoce do ENH e novos alvos para melhor conduta terapêutica deste episodio reacional. (AU)