New insights into Xenopus sex chromosome genomics from the Marsabit clawed frog X. borealis.

In many groups, sex chromosomes change frequently but the drivers of their rapid evolution are varied and often poorly characterized. With an aim of further understanding sex chromosome turnover, we investigated the polymorphic sex chromosomes of the Marsabit clawed frog, Xenopus borealis, using genomic data and a new chromosome-scale genome assembly. We confirmed previous findings that 54.1 Mb of chromosome 8L is sex-linked in animals from east Kenya and a laboratory strain, but most (or all) of this region is not sex-linked in natural populations from west Kenya. Previous work suggests possible degeneration of the Z chromosomes in the east population because many sex-linked transcripts of this female heterogametic population have female-biased expression, and we therefore expected this chromosome to not be present in the west population. In contrast, our simulations support a model where most or all of the sex-linked portion of the Z chromosome from the east acquired autosomal segregation in the west, and where much genetic variation specific to the large sex-linked portion of the W chromosome from the east is not present in the west. These recent changes are consistent with the hot-potato model, wherein sex chromosome turnover is favoured by natural selection if it purges a (minimally) degenerate sex-specific sex chromosome, but counterintuitively suggest natural selection failed to purge a Z chromosome that has signs of more advanced and possibly more ancient regulatory degeneration. These findings highlight complex evolutionary dynamics of young, rapidly evolving Xenopus sex chromosomes and set the stage for mechanistic work aimed at pinpointing additional sex-determining genes in this group.

Genomic and small RNA sequencing of Miscanthus x giganteus shows the utility of sorghum as a reference genome sequence for Andropogoneae grasses.

BACKGROUND: Miscanthus x giganteus (Mxg) is a perennial grass that produces superior biomass yields in temperate environments. The essentially uncharacterized triploid genome (3n = 57, x = 19) of Mxg is likely critical for the rapid growth of this vegetatively propagated interspecific hybrid. RESULTS: A survey of the complex Mxg genome was conducted using 454 pyrosequencing of genomic DNA and Illumina sequencing-by-synthesis of small RNA. We found that the coding fraction of the Mxg genome has a high level of sequence identity to that of other grasses. Highly repetitive sequences representing the great majority of the Mxg genome were predicted using non-cognate assembly for de novo repeat detection. Twelve abundant families of repeat were observed, with those related to either transposons or centromeric repeats likely to comprise over 95% of the genome. Comparisons of abundant repeat sequences to a small RNA survey of three Mxg organs (leaf, rhizome, inflorescence) revealed that the majority of observed 24-nucleotide small RNAs are derived from these repetitive sequences. We show that high-copy-number repeats match more of the small RNA, even when the amount of the repeat sequence in the genome is accounted for. CONCLUSIONS: We show that major repeats are present within the triploid Mxg genome and are actively producing small RNAs. We also confirm the hypothesized origins of Mxg, and suggest that while the repeat content of Mxg differs from sorghum, the sorghum genome is likely to be of utility in the assembly of a gene-space sequence of Mxg.

Sequence and genetic map of Meloidogyne hapla: A compact nematode genome for plant parasitism.

We have established Meloidogyne hapla as a tractable model plant-parasitic nematode amenable to forward and reverse genetics, and we present a complete genome sequence. At 54 Mbp, M. hapla represents not only the smallest nematode genome yet completed, but also the smallest metazoan, and defines a platform to elucidate mechanisms of parasitism by what is the largest uncontrolled group of plant pathogens worldwide. The M. hapla genome encodes significantly fewer genes than does the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans (most notably through a reduction of odorant receptors and other gene families), yet it has acquired horizontally from other kingdoms numerous genes suspected to be involved in adaptations to parasitism. In some cases, amplification and tandem duplication have occurred with genes suspected of being acquired horizontally and involved in parasitism of plants. Although M. hapla and C. elegans diverged >500 million years ago, many developmental and biochemical pathways, including those for dauer formation and RNAi, are conserved. Although overall genome organization is not conserved, there are areas of microsynteny that may suggest a primary biological function in nematodes for those genes in these areas. This sequence and map represent a wealth of biological information on both the nature of nematode parasitism of plants and its evolution.

A saturation screen for cis-acting regulatory DNA in the Hox genes of Ciona intestinalis.

A screen for the systematic identification of cis-regulatory elements within large (>100 kb) genomic domains containing Hox genes was performed by using the basal chordate Ciona intestinalis. Randomly generated DNA fragments from bacterial artificial chromosomes containing two clusters of Hox genes were inserted into a vector upstream of a minimal promoter and lacZ reporter gene. A total of 222 resultant fusion genes were separately electroporated into fertilized eggs, and their regulatory activities were monitored in larvae. In sum, 21 separable cis-regulatory elements were found. These include eight Hox linked domains that drive expression in nested anterior-posterior domains of ectodermally derived tissues. In addition to vertebrate-like CNS regulation, the discovery of cis-regulatory domains that drive epidermal transcription suggests that C. intestinalis has arthropod-like Hox patterning in the epidermis.