The role of prenatal violence exposure in the development of disparities in children's adiposity from birth to middle childhood.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined whether women's exposure to multiple types of violence during childhood and pregnancy was associated with children's BMI trajectories and whether parenting quality moderated those associations. METHODS: A cohort of 1288 women who gave birth between 2006 and 2011 self-reported their exposure to childhood traumatic events, intimate partner violence (IPV), and residential address (linked to geocoded index of violent crime) during pregnancy. Children's length/height and weight at birth and at age 1, 2, 3, 4 to 6, and 8 years were converted to BMI z scores. Observed mother-child interactions were behaviorally coded during a dyadic teaching task. RESULTS: Covariate-adjusted growth mixture models identified three trajectories of children's BMI from birth to 8 years old: Low-Stable (17%), Moderate-Stable (59%), and High-Rising (22%). Children whose mothers experienced more types of IPV during pregnancy were more likely to be in the High-Rising than the Low-Stable (odds ratio [OR] = 2.62; 95% CI: 1.27-5.41) trajectory. Children whose mothers lived in higher crime neighborhoods were more likely to be in the High-Rising than the Low-Stable (OR = 1.11; 95% CI:1.03-1.17) or Moderate-Stable trajectories (OR = 1.08; CI: 1.03-1.13). Main effects of childhood traumatic events and moderation by parenting were not detected. CONCLUSIONS: Maternal experiences of violence during pregnancy increase children's risk for developing overweight, highlighting intergenerational transmission of social adversity in children's health.

Long-term effects of a prenatal mindfulness intervention on depressive symptoms in a diverse sample of women.

OBJECTIVE: Depression is a public health crisis, and scalable, affordable interventions are needed. Although many psychosocial interventions are effective, there is little research investigating their sustained, long-term influence on well-being. The purpose of this study was to examine whether a prenatal mindfulness intervention with demonstrated benefit for women's depressive symptoms during the early postpartum period would exert effects through 8 years. METHOD: The sample of 162 lower income women was racially and ethnically diverse. Women were assigned to receive an 8-week mindfulness-based intervention during pregnancy (MIND) or treatment as usual (TAU). Repeated assessments of depressive symptoms were collected using the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 at baseline, postintervention, and following childbirth (1, 2, 3-4, 5, 6, and 8 years from baseline). The most recent assessment of depressive symptoms was collected during the COVID-19 pandemic. RESULTS: MIND and TAU women were equivalent on sociodemographic factors and depressive symptoms at baseline. Depressive symptoms at all follow-up assessments through 8 years were significantly lower among women in MIND compared to TAU. The odds of moderate or higher depressive symptoms were greater among TAU compared to MIND women at all time points except the 6-year assessment. By Year 8, 12% of women in MIND reported moderate or more severe depressive symptoms compared to 25% of women in TAU. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest the effects of a group-based psychosocial intervention during pregnancy may endure for years, well beyond the initial perinatal period. Investing in prevention and intervention efforts for mental health during pregnancy may have sustained benefits for the well-being of women. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Transactions between Maternal and Child Depressive Symptoms Emerge Early in Life.

Maternal depression is a robust risk factor for children's internalizing symptoms; however, the intergenerational transmission of mood disorders is likely more complex than unidirectional parent-directed effects. Theoretical models support transactional associations between maternal and child symptomatology over time but have not been well examined, especially in younger high-risk samples. The present investigation examined predictive transactional relations between maternal depression and children's internalizing in toddlerhood and early childhood using a cross-lagged panel model. Participants were 162 low-income, largely racial/ethnic minority mothers and their offspring (32% African American, 16% White, 52% Other/Multiethnic; 53% female) who were assessed when children were 18 months and 4 years old. There were significant cross-sectional relations between maternal depressive and child internalizing symptoms when children were 18 months but not 4 years of age. Cross-lagged associations were evident such that maternal depression symptoms at 18 months were positively associated with internalizing symptoms among children at 4 years, adjusting for prior maternal symptom levels and the cross-sectional correlations between maternal-child symptoms at 18 months. Within the same model, children's internalizing symptoms at 18 months were also positively associated with maternal depressive symptoms at 4 years, adjusting for prior child symptom levels and cross-sectional correlations. This study is among the first to demonstrate that transactional relations between maternal and child mood symptoms occur as early as toddlerhood/early childhood. Findings highlight the potential utility of inclusive, family-focused interventions that support both parents and children in the treatment of early emotional problems.

Maternal Depressive Symptoms, Paternal Engagement, and Toddler Behavior Problems in Low-income Mexican-origin Families.

OBJECTIVE: Maternal postpartum depression (PPD) may influence fathers' engagement in childrearing; however, empirical studies have been equivocal as to whether these effects emerge in a compensatory (i.e., higher paternal engagement) or spillover (i.e., lower paternal engagement) manner. This study evaluated fathers' gender role attitudes as a moderator that shapes the association between maternal PPD and fathers' engagement during infancy, and also examined relations between father engagement and children's subsequent behavior problems. METHOD: In a prospective study of low-income, Mexican-origin families (N = 181 mothers and a subset of their partners, N = 92 fathers), maternal PPD symptoms and fathers' gender role attitudes were measured at 15-weeks postpartum, father engagement was measured at 21-weeks, and children's behavior problems were measured at 12 and 18 months. RESULTS: Higher maternal PPD symptoms were associated with lower father engagement and more child behavior problems when fathers endorsed more segregated gender role attitudes; however, this relation was not significant when fathers endorsed less segregated, more contemporary gender role attitudes. A mediational chain was evident, wherein the interaction of maternal PPD and fathers' gender role attitudes predicted paternal engagement, and lower paternal engagement subsequently predicted more child behavior problems at 12 months, which predicted more child behavior problems at 18 months. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest the effects of maternal PPD on children's behavior problems may operate via paternal engagement, which is affected by fathers' traditional gender role attitudes. The study highlights the importance of examining fathering and children's behavior using a cultural-contextual lens among underrepresented ethnic minority families.

Developmental Consequences of Early Life Stress on Risk for Psychopathology: Longitudinal Associations with Children's Multisystem Physiological Regulation and Executive Functioning.

The etiology of psychopathology is multifaceted and warrants consideration of factors at multiple levels and across developmental time. Although experiences of adversity in early life have been associated with increased risk of developing psychopathology, pathways toward maladaptation or resilience are complex and depend upon a variety of factors, including individuals' physiological regulation and cognitive functioning. Therefore, in a longitudinal cohort of 113 mother-child dyads, we explored associations from early adverse experiences to physiological co-regulation across multiple systems and subsequent variations in executive functioning. Latent profile analysis derived multisystem profiles based on children's heart rate, respiratory sinus arrhythmia, pre-ejection period, and cortisol measured during periods of rest and reactivity throughout a developmentally challenging protocol. Three distinct profiles of multisystem regulation emerged: heightened multisystem baseline activity (Anticipatory Arousal/ANS Responder), typically adaptive patterns across all systems (Active Copers/Mobilizers) and heightened HPA axis activity (HPA Axis Responders). Path models revealed that children exposed to adversity before 18-months were more likely to evidence an Anticipatory Arousal/ANS Responders response at 36-months, and children in this profile had lower executive functioning scores than the Active Copers/Mobilizers. In sum, these findings provide important information about potential physiological associations linking early adversity to variations in children's task-based executive functioning.

A prenatal programming perspective on the intergenerational transmission of maternal adverse childhood experiences to offspring health problems.

Decades of research indicate that individuals exposed to childhood adversity are at risk for poor physical and mental health across their life span. More recently, intergenerational transmission of trauma and prenatal programming frameworks suggest an even longer reach for adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), with consequences that extend to subsequent generations. Beyond the individual-level consequences typically observed by empirical studies of ACEs, mothers' experiences of early adversity may also compromise the maternal-child dyadic relationship. We propose a conceptual model whereby mothers' ACEs impact maternal-infant dyadic functioning and later biobehavioral health outcomes through heightened perinatal psychosocial risk. We provide support for the proposed paths and mechanistic processes in our model with data drawn from Las Madres Nuevas, a longitudinal study of low-income Mexican-origin families who participated in a series of home and laboratory visits from the prenatal period through early childhood. Higher ACEs exposure among Las Madres Nuevas participants was associated with numerous perinatal psychosocial risk factors, which predicted poorer mother-infant dyadic functioning. Compromised dyadic functioning during infancy was associated with later maternal mental health and child behavior problems. We conclude with discussion of prevention and treatment strategies that can buffer against proposed risk pathways, including perinatal assessment of maternal ACEs and psychosocial risk, perinatal treatment of maternal distress, and mother-infant therapy in the postpartum period. It is our hope that the proposed conceptual model will serve as a guide for future research to examine the lasting consequences of childhood adversities within and across generations among high-risk populations. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Identifying profiles of multisystem physiological activity across early childhood: Examining developmental shifts and associations with stress and internalizing problems.

Physiological regulation is an important predictor of health across the lifespan. Regulation occurs across multiple collaborative systems, yet few empirical studies explore multisystem activity and how this collaborative regulation develops early in life. The current study used latent profile analysis to evaluate multisystem regulation in the autonomic nervous system and hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis in 150 racially/ethnically diverse, low-income children at 18- and 36-months. At both timepoints, profiles of generally moderate activity (Moderate Arousal) and heightened baseline activity (Anticipatory Arousal) emerged. A profile of typically adaptive patterns across all systems (Active Copers) emerged at 18-months and a profile of heightened HPA Axis activity (HPA-axis Responders) emerged at 36-months. Persistent membership in the Anticipatory Arousal profile across time was associated with exposure to greater maternal stress at 18-months and child internalizing problems at 36-months. These findings highlight early multisystem profile development and suggest associations with stress and later behavior problems.

Externalizing and Internalizing Problems: Associations with Family Adversity and Young Children's Adrenocortical and Autonomic Functioning.

The development of child mental health problems has been associated with experiences of adversity and dysregulation of stress response systems; however, past research has largely focused on externalizing or internalizing problems (rather than their co-occurrence) and single physiological systems in high-risk adolescent samples. The present study examined whether cumulative family adversity, functioning in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (i.e., cortisol) and the parasympathetic nervous system (i.e., respiratory sinus arrhythmia [RSA]), and their interactions, predicted trajectories of co-occurring externalizing and internalizing problems among young children. Participants included 338 socioeconomically and racially diverse children (M age = 5.32 years, SD = .32; male = 51.8%) from a community sample. Family adversity (assessed with six measures) and child daily cortisol output and resting RSA were assessed in kindergarten. Parents, teachers, and children reported on children's externalizing and internalizing psychopathology up to three times from kindergarten to grade 1. Latent class growth analyses identified stable trajectories of externalizing and internalizing psychopathology. Trajectories were combined to create groups: co-occurring externalizing and internalizing (13.1%), externalizing-only (14.0%), internalizing-only (11.3%), and low problems (61.3%). Family adversity and resting RSA significantly positively predicted co-occurring group membership. Tests for interactions showed adversity did not significantly interact with physiological indicators to predict group membership. However, the two physiological systems interacted, such that higher and lower daily cortisol predicted internalizing group membership for children with lower and higher resting RSA, respectively. Findings support the importance of considering family context and multiple physiological systems to inform understanding of the development of mental health problems, and their co-occurrence, in early childhood.

Infant biological sensitivity to father engagement in low-income Mexican American families.

Despite a sizeable literature documenting meaningful contributions of father involvement to child health and development, researchers have paid little attention to biological characteristics that may render a child more or less sensitive to fathering behavior. The identification of child and paternal characteristics that promote child behavioral health is particularly critical in the context of sociocultural risk. We hypothesized that respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) measured during infancy would moderate the impact of father engagement in caregiving activities on child behavioral health. In a sample of 181 Mexican American families, we evaluated the impact of infant RSA at 6 weeks, mother- and father-reported father engagement in caregiving activities at 15 and 21 weeks, and their interaction on toddler social or emotional behavior problems and competence at 2 years of age. Only infants with average or higher RSA exhibited more behavior problems in the context of low father engagement (p = .021). Neither RSA nor father engagement predicted behavioral competence. The results are consistent with a stress-diathesis process such that higher infant RSA increases vulnerability to suboptimal father involvement, but does not enhance the benefits of high father involvement.

Effects of maternal and paternal postnatal depressive symptoms on infants' parasympathetic regulation in low-income, Mexican American families.

Mothers and fathers are at elevated risk for developing depression during the first postnatal year, especially among families from marginalized communities. Although a number of studies demonstrate that exposure to maternal depressive symptoms can undermine infants' regulatory development, less is known about the extent to which paternal depressive symptoms may also contribute. The current study investigated whether maternal and paternal depressive symptoms were uniquely associated with infants' physiological regulation, and whether associations varied depending on infant sex. Participants included 90 low-income Mexican American families. Fathers and mothers self-reported their depressive symptoms when infants were 15 weeks old, and infants' resting parasympathetic activity (i.e., respiratory sinus arrhythmia [RSA]) was assessed at 6 and 24 weeks. Results indicated that, after controlling for infant 6-week RSA and depressive symptoms in the other parent, paternal depressive symptoms were associated with lower 24-week RSA for both girls and boys, but maternal depressive symptoms were only associated with lower 24-week RSA for boys. Findings highlight a potential mechanism through which the consequences of parent depressive symptoms may reverberate across generations, and suggest that considerations of both infants' and parents' sex may lend insight into how best to intervene.

Evidence for discrete profiles of children's physiological activity across three neurobiological system and their transitions over time.

The conceptualization of stress-responsive physiological systems as operating in an integrated manner is evident in several theoretical models of cross-system functioning. However, limited empirical research has modeled the complexity of multisystem activity. Moreover few studies have explored developmentally regulated changes in multisystem activity during early childhood when plasticity is particularly pronounced. The current study used latent profile analysis (LPA) to evaluate multisystem activity during fall and spring of children's transition to kindergarten in three biological systems: the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), sympathetic nervous system (SNS), and hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis. Latent transition analysis (LTA) was then used to examine the stability of profile classification across time. Across both timepoints, three distinct profiles of multisystem activity emerged. One profile was characterized by heightened HPA axis activity (HPA Axis Responders), a second profile was characterized by moderate, typically adaptive patterns across the PNS, SNS, and HPA axis (Active Copers/Mobilizers), and a third profile was characterized by heightened baseline activity, particularly in the PNS and SNS (Anticipatory Arousal/ANS Responders). LTA of fall-to-spring profile classifications indicated higher probabilities that children remained in the same profile over time compared to probabilities of profile changes, suggesting stability in certain patterns of cross-system responsivity. Patterns of profile stability and change were associated with socioemotional outcomes at the end of the school year. Findings highlight the utility of LPA and LTA to detect meaningful patterns of complex multisystem physiological activity across three systems and their associations with early adjustment during an important developmental transition.

Associations between multisystem stress reactivity and peer nominated aggression in early childhood vary by sex.

There is emerging evidence that the development of problematic aggression in childhood may be associated with specific physiological stress response patterns, with both biological overactivation and underactivation implicated. This study tested associations between sex-specific patterns of stress responses across the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and peer nominations of aggression among 271 kindergarten children (Mean age = 5.32 years; 52% Female; 44% White). Upon entry to kindergarten, children participated in a multidomain standardized stress paradigm. Changes in pre-ejection period (PEP) and salivary cortisol were assessed. On a separate day, children provided peer ratings of physical and relational aggression in a standardized interview. As expected, there was a significant three-way interaction between PEP, cortisol reactivity, and sex, but only for physical aggression. Among boys, cortisol reactivity was positively associated with physical aggression only for those with higher SNS reactivity. Findings suggest that for boys, asymmetrical and symmetrical HPA/SNS reactivity may be associated with lower and higher risk for peer-directed physical aggression, respectively. Understanding the complex associations between multisystem physiology, child sex and peer-directed aggression in early childhood may offer insight into individual differences underlying the emergence of behavioral dysregulation in early peer contexts.

Associations between classroom climate and children's externalizing symptoms: The moderating effect of kindergarten children's parasympathetic reactivity.

Classrooms are key social settings that impact children's mental health, though individual differences in physiological reactivity may render children more or less susceptible to classroom environments. In a diverse sample of children from 19 kindergarten classrooms (N = 338, 48% female, M age = 5.32 years), we examined whether children's parasympathetic reactivity moderated the association between classroom climate and externalizing symptoms. Independent observers coded teachers' use of child-centered and teacher-directed instructional practices across classroom social and management domains. Children's respiratory sinus arrhythmia reactivity to challenge tasks was assessed in fall and a multi-informant measure of externalizing was collected in fall and spring. Both the social and the management domains of classroom climate significantly interacted with children's respiratory sinus arrhythmia reactivity to predict spring externalizing symptoms, controlling for fall symptoms. For more reactive children, as classrooms shifted toward greater proportional use of child-centered methods, externalizing symptoms declined, whereas greater use of teacher-dominated practices was associated with increased symptoms. Conversely, among less reactive children, exposure to more teacher-dominated classroom management practices was associated with lower externalizing. Consistent with the theory of biological sensitivity to context, considering variability in children's physiological reactivity aids understanding of the salience of the classroom environment for children's mental health.

Informant-specific reports of peer and teacher relationships buffer the effects of harsh parenting on children's oppositional defiant disorder during kindergarten.

Harsh and restrictive parenting are well-established contributors to the development of oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) among children. However, few studies have explored whether interpersonal relationships that develop outside the family environment attenuate the risk for ODD that is associated with harsh parenting. The current study tested multireporter measures of teacher-child closeness and peer acceptance as moderators of the association between harsh parenting and children's ODD as children's social worlds widen during the kindergarten year (N = 338 children, 48% girls, M age = 5.32 years). Harsh parenting interacted with peer nominations of peer acceptance and children's report of teacher-child closeness to predict children's ODD symptoms in the spring, adjusting for fall symptoms. Children exposed to harsh parenting exhibited greater symptom increases when they were less liked/accepted playmates and in the context of lower teacher-child closeness. However, harsh parenting was not associated with symptom change among children with higher levels of peer-nominated acceptance and those who reported closer relationships with teachers. There were no significant interactions using teacher's report of peer acceptance or teacher's report of teacher-child closeness. Findings highlight positive peer and teacher relationships as promising targets of intervention among children exposed to harsh parenting and support the importance of assessing multiple perspectives of children's social functioning.

Differences in Febrile and Respiratory Illnesses in Minority Children: The Sociodemographic Context of Restrictive Parenting.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the moderating role of restrictive parenting on the relation of socioeconomic status (SES) to febrile illnesses (FIs) and upper respiratory illnesses (URIs) among ethnic minority and non-minority children. METHODS: Children from diverse ethnic backgrounds (Caucasian, African American, Asian, Latino, other, or multiethnic) were followed across the course of the kindergarten year. Parents reported on SES and parenting. A nurse completed 13 physical exams per child over the year to assess FIs and URIs. RESULTS: During the school year, 28% of children (n = 199, 56% ethnic minority) exhibited one or more FIs (range, 0-6) and 90% exhibited one or more URIs (range, 0-10). No main or moderating effects of SES or restrictive parenting on FIs or URIs were found among Caucasian children; however, among ethnic minority children, the relation of SES to FIs was conditional upon restrictive parenting (ß = .66; P = .02), as the fewest FIs were found for lower SES minority children whose parents reported more restrictive practices. Additionally, among minority children, more restrictive parenting was marginally associated with fewer URIs (ß = -.21; P = .05). CONCLUSIONS: Unexpectedly, among minority children the fewest illnesses occurred among lower SES children whose parents endorsed more restrictive parenting. This may be due to unique appraisals of this rearing style among minority children in lower SES environments and its potential to influence immune functioning. Results suggest variability in the effects of parenting on offspring health and support context-specific evaluations of parenting in efforts to ameliorate early health disparities.

Children's biobehavioral reactivity to challenge predicts DNA methylation in adolescence and emerging adulthood.

A growing body of research has documented associations between adverse childhood environments and DNA methylation, highlighting epigenetic processes as potential mechanisms through which early external contexts influence health across the life course. The present study tested a complementary hypothesis: indicators of children's early internal, biological, and behavioral responses to stressful challenges may also be linked to stable patterns of DNA methylation later in life. Children's autonomic nervous system reactivity, temperament, and mental health symptoms were prospectively assessed from infancy through early childhood, and principal components analysis (PCA) was applied to derive composites of biological and behavioral reactivity. Buccal epithelial cells were collected from participants at 15 and 18 years of age. Findings revealed an association between early life biobehavioral inhibition/disinhibition and DNA methylation across many genes. Notably, reactive, inhibited children were found to have decreased DNA methylation of the DLX5 and IGF2 genes at both time points, as compared to non-reactive, disinhibited children. Results of the present study are provisional but suggest that the gene's profile of DNA methylation may constitute a biomarker of normative or potentially pathological differences in reactivity. Overall, findings provide a foundation for future research to explore relations among epigenetic processes and differences in both individual-level biobehavioral risk and qualities of the early, external childhood environment.

Family Socioeconomic Status, Cortisol, and Physical Health in Early Childhood: The Role of Advantageous Neighborhood Characteristics.

OBJECTIVE: Children from families with lower socioeconomic status (SES) evidence greater physiological dysregulation and poorer health. Despite recognition of environmental contributors, little is known about the influence of neighborhood characteristics. The present study examined the moderating role of community-level risks and resources on the relation of family SES to children's daily cortisol output and physical health during the kindergarten year. METHODS: In fall and spring of kindergarten, children's (N = 338) daily total cortisol was measured and parents and teachers rated children's global physical health. Parents reported family SES. Neighborhood characteristics were assessed using the Child Opportunity Index, a population-level tool that evaluates the quality of multiple domains of neighborhood attributes. RESULTS: In fall, children reared in lower SES family environments had higher cortisol when residing in lower quality (lower opportunity) neighborhoods (b = -.097, p < .001), but there was no relation between family SES and children's cortisol in more advantaged (higher opportunity) neighborhoods (b = -.023, p = .36). Lower family SES was prospectively associated with poorer physical health in spring (controlling for fall health) only among children living in lower opportunity neighborhoods (b = -.250, p = .018) and was unrelated to physical health among children residing in higher opportunity neighborhoods (b = .042, p = .70). CONCLUSIONS: Higher opportunity neighborhoods may protect against the negative consequences of low family SES on children's stress physiology and physical health. Public health interventions that bolster neighborhood opportunities may benefit young children reared in socioeconomically disadvantaged family environments.

Child temperament and teacher relationship interactively predict cortisol expression: The prism of classroom climate.

Entry into kindergarten is a developmental milestone that children may differentially experience as stressful, with implications for variability in neurobiological functioning. Guided by the goodness-of-fit framework, this study tested the hypothesis that kindergarten children's (N = 338) daily cortisol would be affected by the "match" or "mismatch" between children's temperament and qualities of the classroom relational context. The robustness of these associations was also explored among a separate sample of children in third grade (N = 165). Results among kindergarten children showed negative affectivity and overcontrolled temperament were positively related to cortisol expression within classrooms characterized by lower levels of teacher motivational support, but there was no relation between temperament and cortisol when motivational support was higher. Among third-grade children, negative affectivity was marginally positively related to cortisol at lower levels of teacher-child closeness and unrelated at higher levels of teacher-child closeness. Findings suggest children's cortisol expression depends on the extent to which specific temperamental characteristics "fit" within the relational and contextual qualities of the classroom environment, particularly as children navigate the new roles and relationships that emerge during the transition to formal schooling. Developmentally informed neurobiological research in classrooms may contribute to tailored programmatic efforts to support children's school adjustment.