GREM1 is required to maintain cellular heterogeneity in pancreatic cancer.

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) shows pronounced epithelial and mesenchymal cancer cell populations1-4. Cellular heterogeneity in PDAC is an important feature in disease subtype specification3-5, but how distinct PDAC subpopulations interact, and the molecular mechanisms that underlie PDAC cell fate decisions, are incompletely understood. Here we identify the BMP inhibitor GREM16,7 as a key regulator of cellular heterogeneity in pancreatic cancer in human and mouse. Grem1 inactivation in established PDAC in mice resulted in a direct conversion of epithelial into mesenchymal PDAC cells within days, suggesting that persistent GREM1 activity is required to maintain the epithelial PDAC subpopulations. By contrast, Grem1 overexpression caused an almost complete 'epithelialization' of highly mesenchymal PDAC, indicating that high GREM1 activity is sufficient to revert the mesenchymal fate of PDAC cells. Mechanistically, Grem1 was highly expressed in mesenchymal PDAC cells and inhibited the expression of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition transcription factors Snai1 (also known as Snail) and Snai2 (also known as Slug) in the epithelial cell compartment, therefore restricting epithelial-mesenchymal plasticity. Thus, constant suppression of BMP activity is essential to maintain epithelial PDAC cells, indicating that the maintenance of the cellular heterogeneity of pancreatic cancer requires continuous paracrine signalling elicited by a single soluble factor.

METTL3 promotes oxaliplatin resistance of gastric cancer CD133+ stem cells by promoting PARP1 mRNA stability.

Oxaliplatin is the first-line regime for advanced gastric cancer treatment, while its resistance is a major problem that leads to the failure of clinical treatments. Tumor cell heterogeneity has been considered as one of the main causes for drug resistance in cancer. In this study, the mechanism of oxaliplatin resistance was investigated through in vitro human gastric cancer organoids and gastric cancer oxaliplatin-resistant cell lines and in vivo subcutaneous tumorigenicity experiments. The in vitro and in vivo results indicated that CD133+ stem cell-like cells are the main subpopulation and PARP1 is the central gene mediating oxaliplatin resistance in gastric cancer. It was found that PARP1 can effectively repair DNA damage caused by oxaliplatin by means of mediating the opening of base excision repair pathway, leading to the occurrence of drug resistance. The CD133+ stem cells also exhibited upregulated expression of N6-methyladenosine (m6A) mRNA and its writer METTL3 as showed by immunoprecipitation followed by sequencing and transcriptome analysis. METTTL3 enhances the stability of PARP1 by recruiting YTHDF1 to target the 3'-untranslated Region (3'-UTR) of PARP1 mRNA. The CD133+ tumor stem cells can regulate the stability and expression of m6A to PARP1 through METTL3, and thus exerting the PARP1-mediated DNA damage repair ability. Therefore, our study demonstrated that m6A Methyltransferase METTL3 facilitates oxaliplatin resistance in CD133+ gastric cancer stem cells by Promoting PARP1 mRNA stability which increases base excision repair pathway activity.

USP28 deletion and small-molecule inhibition destabilizes c-MYC and elicits regression of squamous cell lung carcinoma.

Lung squamous cell carcinoma (LSCC) is a considerable global health burden, with an incidence of over 600,000 cases per year. Treatment options are limited, and patient's 5-year survival rate is less than 5%. The ubiquitin-specific protease 28 (USP28) has been implicated in tumourigenesis through its stabilization of the oncoproteins c-MYC, c-JUN, and Δp63. Here, we show that genetic inactivation of Usp28-induced regression of established murine LSCC lung tumours. We developed a small molecule that inhibits USP28 activity in the low nanomole range. While displaying cross-reactivity against the closest homologue USP25, this inhibitor showed a high degree of selectivity over other deubiquitinases. USP28 inhibitor treatment resulted in a dramatic decrease in c-MYC, c-JUN, and Δp63 proteins levels and consequently induced substantial regression of autochthonous murine LSCC tumours and human LSCC xenografts, thereby phenocopying the effect observed by genetic deletion. Thus, USP28 may represent a promising therapeutic target for the treatment of squamous cell lung carcinoma.

PARP1 Inhibitor Combined With Oxaliplatin Efficiently Suppresses Oxaliplatin Resistance in Gastric Cancer-Derived Organoids via Homologous Recombination and the Base Excision Repair Pathway.

Oxaliplatin (OXA) resistance in the treatment of different types of cancer is an important and complex problem. The culture of tumor organoids derived from gastric cancer can help us to provide a deeper understanding of the underlying mechanisms that lead to OXA resistance. In this study, our purpose was to understand the mechanisms that lead to OXA resistance, and to provide survival benefits to patients with OXA through targeted combination therapies. Using sequence analysis of OXA-resistant and non-OXA-resistant organoids, we found that PARP1 is an important gene that mediates OXA resistance. Through the patients' follow-up data, it was observed that the expression level of PARP1 was significantly correlated with OXA resistance. This was confirmed by genetic manipulation of PARP1 expression in OXA-resistant organoids used in subcutaneous tumor formation. Results further showed that PARP1 mediated OXA resistance by inhibiting the base excision repair pathway. OXA also inhibited homologous recombination by CDK1 activity and importantly made cancers with normal BRCA1 function sensitive to PARP inhibition. As a result, combination of OXA and Olaparib (PARP-1/2/3 inhibitor), inhibited in vivo and in vitro OXA resistant organoid growth and viability.

JunD, not c-Jun, is the AP-1 transcription factor required for Ras-induced lung cancer.

The AP-1 transcription factor c-Jun is required for Ras-driven tumorigenesis in many tissues and is considered as a classical proto-oncogene. To determine the requirement for c-Jun in a mouse model of K-RasG12D-induced lung adenocarcinoma, we inducibly deleted c-Jun in the adult lung. Surprisingly, we found that inactivation of c-Jun, or mutation of its JNK phosphorylation sites, actually increased lung tumor burden. Mechanistically, we found that protein levels of the Jun family member JunD were increased in the absence of c-Jun. In c-Jun-deficient cells, JunD phosphorylation was increased, and expression of a dominant-active JNKK2-JNK1 transgene further increased lung tumor formation. Strikingly, deletion of JunD completely abolished Ras-driven lung tumorigenesis. This work identifies JunD, not c-Jun, as the crucial substrate of JNK signaling and oncogene required for Ras-induced lung cancer.

ATMIN Is a Tumor Suppressor Gene in Lung Adenocarcinoma.

Tumor cells proliferate rapidly and thus are frequently subjected to replication stress and the risk of incomplete duplication of the genome. Fragile sites are replicated late, making them more vulnerable to damage when DNA replication fails to complete. Therefore, genomic alterations at fragile sites are commonly observed in tumors. FRA16D is one of the most common fragile sites in lung cancer, however, the nature of the tumor suppressor genes affected by FRA16D alterations has been controversial. Here, we show that the ATMIN gene, which encodes a cofactor required for activation of ATM kinase by replication stress, is located close to FRA16D and is commonly lost in lung adenocarcinoma. Low ATMIN expression was frequently observed in human lung adenocarcinoma tumors and was associated with reduced patient survival, suggesting that ATMIN functions as a tumor suppressor in lung adenocarcinoma. Heterozygous Atmin deletion significantly increased tumor cell proliferation, tumor burden, and tumor grade in the LSL-KRasG12D; Trp53 F/F (KP) mouse model of lung adenocarcinoma, identifying ATMIN as a haploinsufficient tumor suppressor. ATMIN-deficient KP lung tumor cells showed increased survival in response to replication stress and consequently accumulated DNA damage. Thus, our data identify ATMIN as a key gene affected by genomic deletions at FRA16D in lung adenocarcinoma. SIGNIFICANCE: These findings identify ATMIN as a tumor suppressor in LUAD; fragility at chr16q23 correlates with loss of ATMIN in human LUAD and deletion of Atmin increases tumor burden in a LUAD mouse model.

LUBAC determines chemotherapy resistance in squamous cell lung cancer.

Lung squamous cell carcinoma (LSCC) and adenocarcinoma (LADC) are the most common lung cancer subtypes. Molecular targeted treatments have improved LADC patient survival but are largely ineffective in LSCC. The tumor suppressor FBW7 is commonly mutated or down-regulated in human LSCC, and oncogenic KRasG12D activation combined with Fbxw7 inactivation in mice (KF model) caused both LSCC and LADC. Lineage-tracing experiments showed that CC10+, but not basal, cells are the cells of origin of LSCC in KF mice. KF LSCC tumors recapitulated human LSCC resistance to cisplatin-based chemotherapy, and we identified LUBAC-mediated NF-κB signaling as a determinant of chemotherapy resistance in human and mouse. Inhibition of NF-κB activation using TAK1 or LUBAC inhibitors resensitized LSCC tumors to cisplatin, suggesting a future avenue for LSCC patient treatment.

Nitric oxide mediates aortic disease in mice deficient in the metalloprotease Adamts1 and in a mouse model of Marfan syndrome.

Heritable thoracic aortic aneurysms and dissections (TAAD), including Marfan syndrome (MFS), currently lack a cure, and causative mutations have been identified for only a fraction of affected families. Here we identify the metalloproteinase ADAMTS1 and inducible nitric oxide synthase (NOS2) as therapeutic targets in individuals with TAAD. We show that Adamts1 is a major mediator of vascular homeostasis, given that genetic haploinsufficiency of Adamts1 in mice causes TAAD similar to MFS. Aortic nitric oxide and Nos2 levels were higher in Adamts1-deficient mice and in a mouse model of MFS (hereafter referred to as MFS mice), and Nos2 inactivation protected both types of mice from aortic pathology. Pharmacological inhibition of Nos2 rapidly reversed aortic dilation and medial degeneration in young Adamts1-deficient mice and in young or old MFS mice. Patients with MFS showed elevated NOS2 and decreased ADAMTS1 protein levels in the aorta. These findings uncover a possible causative role for the ADAMTS1-NOS2 axis in human TAAD and warrant evaluation of NOS2 inhibitors for therapy.

A paracrine network regulates the cross-talk between human lung stem cells and the stroma.

The signals that regulate stem cell self-renewal and differentiation in the lung remain elusive. Lung stem cells undergo self-renewal or lineage commitment to replenish tissue, depending on cross-talk with their environment. This environment, also known as the niche, includes mesenchymal and endothelial tissues. Here we define molecular mechanisms involved in the interaction between human lung Lgr6+ stem cells (LSCs) and fibroblasts in a functional microenvironment. We reveal a central role for p38α MAPK in establishing and maintaining such cross-talk, acting in both cell types. In LSCs, p38α induces the expression of SDF-1, which activates the stroma. p38α is essential for fibroblast activation and induction of cytokine expression, in particular TNFα. This paracrine network induces a hierarchical activation leading to the recruitment of endothelium, establishing a functional microenvironment. Disruption of this cross-talk abrogates proper LSC differentiation in vivo and may lead to lung dysfunction and disease.

A two-step inactivation mechanism of Myt1 ensures CDK1/cyclin B activation and meiosis I entry.

Activation of CDK1 is essential for M-phase entry both in mitosis and meiosis. G2-arrested oocytes contain a pool of CDK1/cyclin B complexes that are maintained inactive because of the phosphorylation of CDK1 on Thr14 and Tyr15 by the Wee1 family protein kinase Myt1, whose inhibition suffices to induce meiosis I entry [1-5]. CDK1/XRINGO and p90Rsk can both phosphorylate and downregulate Myt1 activity in vitro [6, 7]. Here we identify five p90Rsk phosphorylation sites on Myt1 that are different from the CDK1/XRINGO sites, and we show how both kinases synergize during oocyte maturation to inhibit Myt1, ensuring meiotic progression. We found that phosphorylation of Myt1 by CDK1/XRINGO early during oocyte maturation not only downregulates Myt1 kinase activity but also facilitates the recruitment of p90Rsk and further phosphorylation of Myt1. Mutation of the five p90Rsk residues to alanine impairs Myt1 hyperphosphorylation during oocyte maturation and makes Myt1 resistant to the inhibition by p90Rsk. Importantly, Myt1 phosphorylated by p90Rsk does not interact with CDK1/cyclin B, ensuring that the inhibitory phosphorylations of CDK1 cannot take place after meiosis I entry and contributing to the all-or-none meiotic response.

Meiotic inactivation of Xenopus Myt1 by CDK/XRINGO, but not CDK/cyclin, via site-specific phosphorylation.

Cell-cycle progression is regulated by cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs). CDK1 and CDK2 can be also activated by noncyclin proteins named RINGO/Speedy, which were identified as inducers of the G2/M transition in Xenopus oocytes. However, it is unclear how XRINGO triggers M phase entry in oocytes. We show here that XRINGO-activated CDKs can phosphorylate specific residues in the regulatory domain of Myt1, a Wee1 family kinase that plays a key role in the G2 arrest of oocytes. We have identified three Ser that are major phosphoacceptor sites for CDK/XRINGO but are poorly phosphorylated by CDK/cyclin. Phosphorylation of these Ser inhibits Myt1 activity, whereas their mutation makes Myt1 resistant to inhibition by CDK/XRINGO. Our results demonstrate that XRINGO-activated CDKs have different substrate specificity than the CDK/cyclin complexes. We also describe a mechanism of Myt1 regulation based on site-specific phosphorylation, which is likely to mediate the induction of G2/M transition in oocytes by XRINGO.

The functional interaction of 14-3-3 proteins with the ERK1/2 scaffold KSR1 occurs in an isoform-specific manner.

Identifying 14-3-3 isoform-specific substrates and functions may be of broad relevance to cell signaling research because of the key role played by this family of proteins in many vital processes. A multitude of ligands have been identified, but the extent to which they are isoform-specific is a matter of debate. Herein we demonstrate, both in vitro and in vivo, a specific, functionally relevant interaction of human 14-3-3gamma with the molecular scaffold KSR1, which is mediated by the C-terminal stretch of 14-3-3gamma. Specific binding to 14-3-3gamma protected KSR1 from epidermal growth factor-induced dephosphorylation and impaired its ability to activate ERK2 and facilitate Ras signaling in Xenopus oocytes. Furthermore, RNA interference-mediated inhibition of 14-3-3gamma resulted in the accumulation of KSR1 in the plasma membrane, all in accordance with 14-3-3gamma being the cytosolic anchor that keeps KSR1 inactive. We also provide evidence that KSR1-bound 14-3-3gamma heterodimerized preferentially with selected isoforms and that KSR1 bound monomeric 14-3-3gamma. In sum, we have demonstrated ligand discrimination among 14-3-3 isoforms and shed light on molecular mechanisms of 14-3-3 functional specificity and KSR1 regulation.

Negative regulation of cell-cycle progression by RINGO/Speedy E.

Cell-cycle transitions are controlled by CDKs (cyclin-dependent kinases), whose activation is usually associated with the binding of cyclins. RINGO/Speedy proteins can also bind to and activate CDKs, although they do not have amino acid sequence homology with cyclins. The RINGO/Speedy family members studied so far positively regulate cell-cycle progression. In the present paper, we report the biochemical and functional characterization of RINGO/Speedy E. We show that RINGO/Speedy E is a functionally distant member of this protein family that negatively affects cell-cycle progression. RINGO/Speedy E overexpression inhibits the meiotic progression in Xenopus oocytes as well as the proliferation of mammalian cells. RINGO/Speedy E can bind to endogenous CDK1 and CDK2 in both cellular systems. However, the RINGO/Speedy E-activated CDKs have different substrate specificity than the CDKs activated by other RINGO/Speedy proteins, which may account for their different effects on the cell cycle. Our results indicate that, although all RINGO/Speedy family members can activate CDKs, they may differently regulate cell-cycle progression.