Montelukast, an available and safe anti-asthmatic drug, prevents maladaptive remodelling and maintains cardiac functionality following myocardial infarction.

Preclinical and clinical data indicate that the 5-lipoxygenase pathway becomes activated in cardiovascular diseases suggesting an important role of CysLTs in atherosclerosis and in its ischemic complications. This study aims to investigate the effects of montelukast, a CysLTR-1 antagonist, in a mouse model of myocardial infarction (MI). C57BL/6N female mice were subjected to coronary artery ligation and received montelukast (10 mg/kg/day, intraperitoneal) or vehicle. Montelukast exerted beneficial effects in the infarcted area, decreasing mRNA expression of inflammatory genes, such Il1ß and Ccl2 (p < 0.05), at 48 h after MI, and reducing infarct size and preventing ischemic wall thinning (p < 0.05) at 4 weeks. Furthermore, montelukast counteracted maladaptive remodelling of whole heart. Indeed, montelukast reduced LV mass (p < 0.05) and remote wall thickening (p < 0.05), and improved cardiac pumping function, as evidenced by increased global ejection fraction (p < 0.01), and regional contractility in infarcted (p < 0.05) and in remote non-infarcted (p < 0.05) myocardium. Finally, montelukast prevented cardiomyocytes hypertrophy (p < 0.05) in remote myocardium, reducing the phosphorylation of GSK3ß, a regulator of hypertrophic pathway (p < 0.05). Our data strongly demonstrate the ability of montelukast to contrast the MI-induced maladaptive conditions, thus sustaining cardiac contractility. The results provide evidences for montelukast "repurposing" in cardiovascular diseases and in particular in myocardial infarction.

Harmonization of sensorimotor deficit assessment in a registered multicentre pre-clinical randomized controlled trial using two models of ischemic stroke.

Multicentre preclinical randomized controlled trials (pRCTs) are a valuable tool to improve experimental stroke research, but are challenging and therefore underused. A common challenge regards the standardization of procedures across centres. We here present the harmonization phase for the quantification of sensorimotor deficits by composite neuroscore, which was the primary outcome of two multicentre pRCTs assessing remote ischemic conditioning in rodent models of ischemic stroke. Ischemic stroke was induced by middle cerebral artery occlusion for 30, 45 or 60 min in mice and 50, 75 or 100 min in rats, allowing sufficient variability. Eleven animals per species were video recorded during neurobehavioural tasks and evaluated with neuroscore by eight independent raters, remotely and blindly. We aimed at reaching an intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) ≥0.60 as satisfactory interrater agreement. After a first remote training we obtained ICC = 0.50 for mice and ICC = 0.49 for rats. Errors were identified in animal handling and test execution. After a second remote training, we reached the target interrater agreement for mice (ICC = 0.64) and rats (ICC = 0.69). In conclusion, a multi-step, online harmonization phase proved to be feasible, easy to implement and highly effective to align each centre's behavioral evaluations before project's interventional phase.

Cerebral derailment after myocardial infarct: mechanisms and effects of the signaling from the ischemic heart to brain.

Myocardial infarction (MI) is the leading cause of death among ischemic heart diseases and is associated with several long-term cardiovascular complications, such as angina, re-infarction, arrhythmias, and heart failure. However, MI is frequently accompanied by non-cardiovascular multiple comorbidities, including brain disorders such as stroke, anxiety, depression, and cognitive impairment. Accumulating experimental and clinical evidence suggests a causal relationship between MI and stroke, but the precise underlying mechanisms have not yet been elucidated. Indeed, the risk of stroke remains a current challenge in patients with MI, in spite of the improvement of medical treatment among this patient population has reduced the risk of stroke. In this review, the effects of the signaling from the ischemic heart to the brain, such as neuroinflammation, neuronal apoptosis, and neurogenesis, and the possible actors mediating these effects, such as systemic inflammation, immunoresponse, extracellular vesicles, and microRNAs, are discussed.

Prenatal Exposure to Triclocarban Impairs ESR1 Signaling and Disrupts Epigenetic Status in Sex-Specific Ways as Well as Dysregulates the Expression of Neurogenesis- and Neurotransmitter-Related Genes in the Postnatal Mouse Brain.

Triclocarban is a highly effective and broadly used antimicrobial agent. Humans are continually exposed to triclocarban, but the safety of prenatal exposure to triclocarban in the context of neurodevelopment remains unknown. In this study, we demonstrated for the first time that mice that had been prenatally exposed to environmentally relevant doses of triclocarban had impaired estrogen receptor 1 (ESR1) signaling in the brain. These mice displayed decreased mRNA and protein expression levels of ESR1 as well as hypermethylation of the Esr1 gene in the cerebral cortex. Prenatal exposure to triclocarban also diminished the mRNA expression of Esr2, Gper1, Ahr, Arnt, Cyp19a1, Cyp1a1, and Atg7, and the protein levels of CAR, ARNT, and MAP1LC3AB in female brains and decreased the protein levels of BCL2, ARNT, and MAP1LC3AB in male brains. In addition, exposure to triclocarban caused sex-specific alterations in the methylation levels of global DNA and estrogen receptor genes. Microarray and enrichment analyses showed that, in males, triclocarban dysregulated mainly neurogenesis-related genes, whereas, in females, the compound dysregulated mainly neurotransmitter-related genes. In conclusion, our data identified triclocarban as a neurodevelopmental risk factor that particularly targets ESR1, affects apoptosis and autophagy, and in sex-specific ways disrupts the epigenetic status of brain tissue and dysregulates the postnatal expression of neurogenesis- and neurotransmitter-related genes.

Nuclear Receptors in Myocardial and Cerebral Ischemia-Mechanisms of Action and Therapeutic Strategies.

Nearly 18 million people died from cardiovascular diseases in 2019, of these 85% were due to heart attack and stroke. The available therapies although efficacious, have narrow therapeutic window and long list of contraindications. Therefore, there is still an urgent need to find novel molecular targets that could protect the brain and heart against ischemia without evoking major side effects. Nuclear receptors are one of the promising targets for anti-ischemic drugs. Modulation of estrogen receptors (ERs) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) by their ligands is known to exert neuro-, and cardioprotective effects through anti-apoptotic, anti-inflammatory or anti-oxidant action. Recently, it has been shown that the expression of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is strongly increased after brain or heart ischemia and evokes an activation of apoptosis or inflammation in injury site. We hypothesize that activation of ERs and PPARs and inhibition of AhR signaling pathways could be a promising strategy to protect the heart and the brain against ischemia. In this Review, we will discuss currently available knowledge on the mechanisms of action of ERs, PPARs and AhR in experimental models of stroke and myocardial infarction and future perspectives to use them as novel targets in cardiovascular diseases.

Selective Targeting of Non-nuclear Estrogen Receptors with PaPE-1 as a New Treatment Strategy for Alzheimer's Disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a multifactorial and severe neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive memory decline, the presence of Aß plaques and tau tangles, brain atrophy, and neuronal loss. Available therapies provide moderate symptomatic relief but do not alter disease progression. This study demonstrated that PaPE-1, which has been designed to selectively activate non-nuclear estrogen receptors (ERs), has anti-AD capacity, as evidenced in a cellular model of the disease. In this model, the treatment of mouse neocortical neurons with Aß (5 and 10 µM) induced apoptosis (loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, activation of caspase-3, induction of apoptosis-related genes and proteins) accompanied by increases in levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) as well as reduced cell viability. Following 24 h of exposure, PaPE-1 inhibited Aß-evoked effects, as shown by reduced parameters of neurotoxicity, oxidative stress, and apoptosis. Because PaPE-1 downregulated Aß-induced Fas/FAS expression but upregulated that of Aß-induced FasL, the role of PaPE-1 in controlling the external apoptotic pathway is controversial. However, PaPE-1 normalized Aß-induced loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and restored the BAX/BCL2 ratio, suggesting that the anti-AD capacity of PaPE-1 particularly relies on inhibition of the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. These data provide new evidence for an anti-AD strategy that utilizes the selective targeting of non-nuclear ERs with PaPE-1.

Autophagy-related neurotoxicity is mediated via AHR and CAR in mouse neurons exposed to DDE.

DDE (dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene) is an environmental metabolite of the pesticide DDT, which is still present in the environment, and its insecticidal properties are used to fight malaria and the Zika virus disease. We showed for the first time that the neurotoxic effects of DDE involve autophagy, as demonstrated by elevated levels of Becn1, Map1lc3a/MAP1LC3A, Map1lc3b, and Nup62/NUP62 and an increase in autophagosome formation. The suggestion that the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) and the constitutive androstane receptor (CAR) are involved in the neurotoxic effect of DDE was supported by increases in the mRNA and protein expression of these receptors, as detected by qPCR, ELISA, immunofluorescence labeling and confocal microscopy. Selective antagonists of the receptors, including alpha-naphthoflavone, CH223191, and CINPA 1, inhibited p,p'-DDE- and o,p'-DDE-induced LDH release and caspase-3 activity, while specific siRNAs (Ahr and Car siRNA) reduced the levels of p,p'-DDE- and o,p'-DDE-induced autophagosome formation. Although the neurotoxic effects of DDE were isomer independent, the mechanisms of p,p'- and o,p'-DDE were isomer specific. Therefore, we identified previously unknown mechanisms of the neurotoxic actions of DDE that, in addition to inducing apoptosis, stimulate autophagy in mouse neocortical cultures and induce AHR and CAR signaling.

Multicentre translational Trial of Remote Ischaemic Conditioning in Acute Ischaemic Stroke (TRICS): protocol of multicentre, parallel group, randomised, preclinical trial in female and male rat and mouse from the Italian Stroke Organization (ISO) Basic Science network.

INTRODUCTION: Multicentre preclinical randomised controlled trials (pRCT) are emerging as a necessary step to confirm efficacy and improve translation into the clinic. The aim of this project is to perform two multicentre pRCTs (one in rats and one in mice) to investigate the efficacy of remote ischaemic conditioning (RIC) in an experimental model of severe ischaemic stroke. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: Seven research laboratories within the Italian Stroke Organization (ISO) Basic Science network will participate in the study. Transient endovascular occlusion of the proximal right middle cerebral artery will be performed in two species (rats and mice) and in both sexes. Animals will be randomised to receive RIC by transient surgical occlusion of the right femoral artery, or sham surgery, after reperfusion. Blinded outcome assessment will be performed for dichotomised functional neuroscore (primary endpoint) and infarct volume (secondary endpoint) at 48 hours. A sample size of 80 animals per species will yield 82% power to detect a significant difference of 30% in the primary outcome in both pRCTs. Analyses will be performed in a blind status and according to an intention-to-treat paradigm. The results of this study will provide robust, translationally oriented, high-quality evidence on the efficacy of RIC in multiple species of rodents with large ischaemic stroke. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: This is approved by the Animal Welfare Regulatory Body of the University of Milano Bicocca, under project license from the Italian Ministry of Health. Trial results will be subject to publication according to the definition of the outcome presented in this protocol. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: PCTE0000177.

Correction to: the Effects of Exposure to Mephedrone During Adolescence on Brain Neurotransmission and Neurotoxicity in Adult Rats.

Acknowledgments: This study was supported by the Grant No 2013/09/B/NZ7/04104 from the National Science Center (Poland).

Effects of exposure to 5-MeO-DIPT during adolescence on brain neurotransmission and neurotoxicity in adult rats.

PURPOSE: Tryptamine hallucinogen 5-methoxy-N,N-diisopropyltryptamine (5-MeO-DIPT) is a serotonin transporter inhibitor with high affinity for serotonin 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A/C receptors. We showed previously that 5-MeO-DIPT in a single dose increased neurotransmitter release in brain regions of rats and elicited single- and double-strand DNA breaks. Herein we investigated the effects of repeated-intermittent 5-MeO-DIPT administration in adolescence on dopamine (DA), serotonin (5-HT) and glutamate release in brain regions of adult rats. Furthermore, we examined caspase-3 activity, oxidative DNA damage, the Gpx3, Sod1, Ht1a and Ht2a mRNA expression levels, and cell viability. METHODS: Neurotransmitter release was measured by microdialysis in freely moving animals. Caspase-3 activity was assessed colorimetrically, and oxidative DNA damage with the comet assay, while the Gpx3, Sod1, Ht1a and Ht2a mRNA expression levels were assessed by real-time polymerase chain reaction. Cell viability was studied in SH-SY5Y and Hep G2 cells by the MTT test. RESULTS: We observed changed responses of DA, 5-HT and glutamate neurons to a challenge dose of 5-MeO-DIPT when animals were treated repeatedly in adolescence with this hallucinogen. The basal extracellular levels of DA and 5-HT were decreased in the striatum and nucleus accumbens, while glutamate level was increased in the nucleus accumbens and frontal cortex. The damage of cortical DNA, increased Gpx3 and Sod1 mRNA expression and affected caspase-3 activity were also observed. Furthermore, decreased Ht1a and Ht2a mRNA expression in the frontal cortex and marked cytotoxicity of 5-MeO-DIPT were found. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that 5-MeO-DIPT given repeatedly during adolescence affects brain neurotransmission and shows neurotoxic potential observed in adult animals.

Triclosan-Evoked Neurotoxicity Involves NMDAR Subunits with the Specific Role of GluN2A in Caspase-3-Dependent Apoptosis.

Triclosan (TCS) is an antimicrobial agent that is used extensively in personal care and in sanitising products. A number of studies have shown the presence of TCS in different human tissues such as blood, adipose tissue, the liver, brain as well as in breast milk and urine. N-Methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) are glutamate-gated ion channels that are widely expressed in the central nervous system and which play key roles in excitatory synaptic transmission. There is, however, no data on the involvement of NMDAR subunits in the apoptotic and neurotoxic effects of TCS. Our experiments are the first to show that TCS used at environmentally relevant concentrations evoked NMDA-dependent effects in neocortical neurons in primary cultures, as MK-801, an uncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonist, reduced the levels of TCS-induced ROS production as well as caspase-3 activity and LDH release. TCS caused a decrease in protein expression of all the studied NMDA receptor subunits (GluN1, GluN2A, GluN2B) that were measured at 3, 6 and 24 h post-treatment. However, at 48 h of the experiment, the level of the GluN1 subunit returned to the control level, and the levels of the other subunits showed a tendency to increase. In TCS-treated neocortical cells, protein profiles of NMDAR subunits measured up to 24 h were similar to mRNA expression of GluN1 and GluN2A, but not to GluN2B mRNA. In this study, cells transiently transfected with GluN1, GluN2A or GluN2B siRNA exhibited reduced levels of LDH release, which suggests the involvement of all of the studied NMDAR subunits in the neurotoxic action of TCS. According to our data, GluN1 and GluN2A were mainly responsible for neuronal cell death as evidenced by neutral red uptake, whereas GluN2A was involved in TCS-induced caspase-3-dependent apoptosis. We suggest that TCS-evoked apoptosis and neurotoxicity could be related to transient degradation of NMDAR subunits in mouse neurons. Furthermore, recycling of NMDAR subunits in response to TCS is possible. Because transfections with specific siRNA did not completely abolish the effects of TCS as compared to cells transfected with negative siRNA in this study, other NMDAR-independent mechanisms of TCS action are also possible.

Prenatal Exposure to Benzophenone-3 Impairs Autophagy, Disrupts RXRs/PPARγ Signaling, and Alters Epigenetic and Post-Translational Statuses in Brain Neurons.

The UV absorber benzophenone-3 (BP-3) is the most extensively used chemical substance in various personal care products. Despite that BP-3 exposure is widespread, knowledge about the impact of BP-3 on the brain development is negligible. The present study aimed to explore the mechanisms of prenatal exposure to BP-3 in neuronal cells, with particular emphasis on autophagy and nuclear receptors signaling as well as the epigenetic and post-translational modifications occurring in response to BP-3. To observe the impact of prenatal exposure to BP-3, we administered BP-3 to pregnant mice, and next, we isolated brain tissue from pretreated embryos for primary cell neocortical culture. Our study revealed that prenatal exposure to BP-3 (used in environmentally relevant doses) impairs autophagy in terms of BECLIN-1, MAP1LC3B, autophagosomes, and autophagy-related factors; disrupts the levels of retinoid X receptors (RXRs) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ); alters epigenetic status (i.e., attenuates HDAC and sirtuin activities); inhibits post-translational modifications in terms of global sumoylation; and dysregulates expression of neurogenesis- and neurotransmitter-related genes as well as miRNAs involved in pathologies of the nervous system. Our study also showed that BP-3 has good permeability through the BBB. We strongly suggest that BP-3-evoked effects may substantiate a fetal basis of the adult onset of neurological diseases, particularly schizophrenia and Alzheimer's disease.

The Effects of Exposure to Mephedrone During Adolescence on Brain Neurotransmission and Neurotoxicity in Adult Rats.

According to the European Drug Report (2016), the use of synthetic cathinones, such as mephedrone, among young people has rapidly increased in the last years. Studies in humans indicate that psychostimulant drug use in adolescence increases risk of drug abuse in adulthood. Mephedrone by its interaction with transporters for dopamine (DAT) and serotonin (SERT) stimulates their release to the synaptic cleft. In animal studies, high repeated doses of mephedrone given to adolescent but not adult mice or rats induced toxic changes in 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) neurons. The aim of our study was to investigate the effects of mephedrone given in adolescence on brain neurotransmission and possible neuronal injury in adult rats. Adolescent male rats were given mephedrone (5 mg/kg) for 8 days. In vivo microdialysis in adult rats showed an increase in dopamine (DA), 5-HT, and glutamate release in the nucleus accumbens and frontal cortex but not in the striatum in response to challenge dose in animals pretreated with mephedrone in adolescence. The 5-HT and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid contents decreased in the striatum and nucleus accumbens while DA turnover rates were decreased in the striatum and nucleus accumbens. The oxidative damage of DNA assessed with the alkaline comet assay was found in the cortex of adult rats. Therefore, the administration of repeated low doses of mephedrone during adolescence does not seem to induce injury to 5-HT and DA neurons. The oxidative stress seems to be responsible for possible damage of cortical cell bodies which causes maladaptive changes in serotonergic and dopaminergic neurons.

Prenatal exposure to benzophenone-3 (BP-3) induces apoptosis, disrupts estrogen receptor expression and alters the epigenetic status of mouse neurons.

Current evidence indicates that benzophenone-3 (BP-3) can pass through the placental and blood-brain barriers and thus can likely affect infant neurodevelopment. Despite widespread exposure, data showing the effects of BP-3 on the developing nervous system are scarce. This study revealed for the first time that prenatal exposure to BP-3 led to apoptosis and neurotoxicity, altered the levels of estrogen receptors (ERs) and changed the epigenetic status of mouse neurons. In the present study, subcutaneous injections of pregnant mice with BP-3 at 50 mg/kg, which is an environmentally relevant dose, evoked activation of caspase-3 and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release as well as substantial loss of mitochondrial membrane potential in neocortical cells of their embryonic offspring. Apoptosis-focused microarray analysis of neocortical cells revealed up-regulation of 22 genes involved in apoptotic cell death. This effect was supported by increased BAX and CASP3 mRNA and protein levels, as evidenced by qPCR, ELISAs and western blots. BP-3-induced apoptosis and neurotoxicity were accompanied by decreases in the mRNA and protein expression levels of ESR1 and ESR2 (also known as ERα and ERß), with a simultaneous increase in GPER1 (also known as GPR30) expression. In addition to the demonstration that treatment of pregnant mice with BP-3 induced apoptosis, caused neurotoxicity and altered ERs expression levels in neocortical cells of their embryonic offspring, we showed that prenatal administration of BP-3 inhibited global DNA methylation as well as reduced DNMTs activity. BP-3 also caused specific hypomethylation of the genes Gper1 and Bax, an effect that was accompanied by increased mRNA and protein expression levels. In addition, BP-3 caused hypermethylation of the genes Esr1, Esr2 and Bcl2, which could explain the reduced mRNA and protein levels of the estrogen receptors. This study demonstrated for the first time that prenatal exposure to BP-3 caused severe neuronal apoptosis that was accompanied by impaired ESR1/ESR2 expression, enhanced GPER1 expression, global DNA hypomethylation and altered methylation statuses of apoptosis-related and ERs genes. We suggest that the effects of BP-3 in embryonic neurons may be the fetal basis of the adult onset of nervous system disease.

Benzophenone-3 Impairs Autophagy, Alters Epigenetic Status, and Disrupts Retinoid X Receptor Signaling in Apoptotic Neuronal Cells.

Benzophenone-3 (BP-3) is the most widely used compound among UV filters for the prevention of photodegradation. Population studies have demonstrated that it penetrates through the skin and crosses the blood-brain barrier. However, little is known about the impact of BP-3 on the nervous system and its possible adverse effects on the developing brain. We demonstrated that the neurotoxic effects of BP-3 were accompanied by the induction of apoptosis, as evidenced by apoptosis-related caspase-3 activation and apoptotic body formation as well as the inhibition of autophagy, as determined by the downregulation of autophagy-related genes, decreased autophagosome formation, and reduced LC3B-to-LC3A ratio. In this study, we showed for the first time that the BP-3-induced apoptosis of neuronal cells is mediated via the stimulation of RXRα signaling and the attenuation of RXRß/RXRγ signaling, as demonstrated using selective antagonist and specific siRNAs as well as by measuring the mRNA and protein expression levels of the receptors. This study also demonstrated that environmentally relevant concentrations of BP-3 were able to inhibit autophagy and disrupt the epigenetic status of neuronal cells, as evidenced by the inhibition of global DNA methylation as well as the reduction of histone deacetylases and histone acetyl transferases activity, which may increase the risks of neurodevelopmental abnormalities and/or neural degenerations.

Depressive-like effect of prenatal exposure to DDT involves global DNA hypomethylation and impairment of GPER1/ESR1 protein levels but not ESR2 and AHR/ARNT signaling.

Several lines of evidence suggest that exposures to Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) such as pesticides increase the risks of neuropsychiatric disorders. Despite extended residual persistence of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) in the environment, the mechanisms of perinatal actions of DDT that could account for adult-onset of depression are largely unknown. This study demonstrated the isomer-specific induction of depressive-like behavior and impairment of Htr1a/serotonin signaling in one-month-old mice that were prenatally exposed to DDT. The effects were reversed by the antidepressant citalopram as evidenced in the forced swimming (FST) and tail suspension (TST) tests in the male and female mice. Prenatally administered DDT accumulated in mouse brain as determined with gas chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry, led to global DNA hypomethylation, and altered the levels of methylated DNA in specific genes. The induction of depressive-like behavior and impairment of Htr1a/serotonin signaling were accompanied by p,p'-DDT-specific decrease in the levels of estrogen receptors i.e. ESR1 and/or GPER1 depending on sex. In contrast, o,p'-DDT did not induce depressive-like effects and exhibited quite distinct pattern of biochemical alterations that was related to aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR), its nuclear translocator ARNT, and ESR2. Exposure to o,p'-DDT increased AHR expression in male and female brains, and reduced expression levels of ARNT and ESR2 in the female brains. The evolution of p,p'-DDT-induced depressive-like behavior was preceded by attenuation of Htr1a and Gper1/GPER1 expression as observed in the 7-day-old mouse pups. Because p,p'-DDT caused sex- and age-independent attenuation of GPER1, we suggest that impairment of GPER1 signaling plays a key role in the propagation of DDT-induced depressive-like symptoms.