Shared attention in virtual immersive reality enhances electrophysiological correlates of implicit sensory learning.

Shared attention effects on learning and memory demonstrate that experiences are amplified when we are not alone. Virtual reality poses new challenges to the study of co-presence. Above all, is coattending together with someone else's avatar in an immersive VR setting comparable with shared experiences at a neural processing level? In the present study we investigate shared attention effects in VR for the first time. We recorded mismatch negativities (MMN) during an auditory roving paradigm, a well-known index of implicit perceptual learning. EEG responses to deviant and standard sounds were registered while subjects were alone (Solo condition) or together (Other condition) with a virtual avatar (Virtual scenario) or physically present confederate (Physical scenario). We found an overall main effect of co-presence on MMN revealed by a point-by-point 2 × 2 ANOVA, thereby replicating previous studies on physical co-presence. Additionally, we found no significant interaction between the scenario (Physical vs. Virtual) and co-presence (Solo vs. Other). Our results indicate that virtual immersive co-presence mimics physical co-presence.

The aesthetic valve: how aesthetic appreciation may switch emotional states from anxiety to curiosity.

Pursuing new knowledge in the entropic environment is pivotal for survival. However, dealing with uncertainty is a costly challenge for the agent surrounded by the stochastic sensory world, giving rise to different epistemic emotions, such as curiosity and anxiety. We recently proposed that aesthetic appreciation may have the role of associating pleasant feedback with the update of predictive representations. According to this idea, aesthetic appreciation and its associated rewarding feeling could drive people to seek new knowledge over anxiety. However, the relationship between aesthetic appreciation, curiosity, and anxiety has been still under-examined in the literature. Here, we explore the relationship between these epistemic emotions in a series of three experiments. In study 1, we examined whether music-induced aesthetic appreciation would influence curiosity in a gambling task. In studies 2a and 2b, we explore the relationship between music-induced aesthetic appreciation and anxiety state. Overall, aesthetic appreciation promoted curiosity-driven behaviour while it was negatively associated with anxiety. These results were consistent with the idea that aesthetic appreciation could act as a 'valve', prompting the individual to perceive curiosity (i.e. to consider novelty as a valuable opportunity to acquire new knowledge) rather than anxiety (i.e. to consider novelty as a risk to be avoided). This article is part of the theme issue 'Art, aesthetics and predictive processing: theoretical and empirical perspectives'.

Re-learning mental representation of walking after a brain lesion. Effects of a cognitive-motor training with a robotic orthosis.

Introduction: Stroke-related deficits often include motor impairments and gait dysfunction, leading to a limitation of social activities and consequently affecting the quality of life of stroke survivors. Neurorehabilitation takes advantage of the contribution of different techniques in order to achieve more benefits for patients. Robotic devices help to improve the outcomes of physical rehabilitation. Moreover, motor imagery seems to play a role in neurological rehabilitation since it leads to the activation of the same brain areas as actual movements. This study investigates the use of a combined physical and cognitive protocol for gait rehabilitation in stroke patients. Methods: Specifically, we tested the efficacy of a 5-week training program using a robotic orthosis (P.I.G.R.O.) in conjunction with motor imagery training. Twelve chronic stroke patients participated in the study. We evaluated balance and gait performance before and after the training. Six of them underwent fMRI examination before and after the training to assess the effects of the protocol on brain plasticity mechanisms in motor and imagery tasks. Results: Our results show that the rehabilitation protocol can effectively improve gait performance and balance and reduce the risk of falls in stroke patients. Furthermore, the fMRI results suggest that rehabilitation is associated with cerebral plastic changes in motor networks. Discussion: The present findings, if confirmed by future research, have the potential to advance the development of new, more effective rehabilitation approaches for stroke patients, improving their quality of life and reducing the burden of stroke-related disability.

Physical but not virtual presence of others potentiates implicit and explicit learning.

E-learning activities are becoming more and more common. Whilst it is well known that the physical presence of others motivates individuals to engage in perceptual and learning tasks, systematic investigations comparing the effects of physical and virtual co-presence of others on knowledge acquisition are still scarce. Here we investigate the effects of physical and virtual co-presence of others on explicit and implicit learning. In Experiment 1 (discovery sample), retrieval accuracy in a spatial memory task and EEG indexes (mismatch negativity-MMN) of implicit perceptual learning were recorded when participants were alone or in presence of another individual. In Experiment 2 (replicating sample), we added a "virtual" condition, where the same tasks were performed during a video-conference call. In both experiments, MMN was demonstrated to encode for perceptual learning as revealed by the significant correlation with Bayesian Surprise (a consolidated information-theoretic index of Bayesian learning). Furthermore, In Experiments 1 and 2 physical co-presence systematically ameliorated memorization performances and increased MMN indexes related to implicit learning. These positive effects were absent in the virtual condition, thus suggesting that only physical, but not virtual co-presence is effective in potentiating learning dynamics.

Beauty and Uncertainty as Transformative Factors: A Free Energy Principle Account of Aesthetic Diagnosis and Intervention in Gestalt Psychotherapy.

Drawing from field theory, Gestalt therapy conceives psychological suffering and psychotherapy as two intentional field phenomena, where unprocessed and chaotic experiences seek the opportunity to emerge and be assimilated through the contact between the patient and the therapist (i.e., the intentionality of contacting). This therapeutic approach is based on the therapist's aesthetic experience of his/her embodied presence in the flow of the healing process because (1) the perception of beauty can provide the therapist with feedback on the assimilation of unprocessed experiences; (2) the therapist's attentional focus on intrinsic aesthetic diagnostic criteria can facilitate the modification of rigid psychopathological fields by supporting the openness to novel experiences. The aim of the present manuscript is to review recent evidence from psychophysiology, neuroaesthetic research, and neurocomputational models of cognition, such as the free energy principle (FEP), which support the notion of the therapeutic potential of aesthetic sensibility in Gestalt psychotherapy. Drawing from neuroimaging data, psychophysiology and recent neurocognitive accounts of aesthetic perception, we propose a novel interpretation of the sense of beauty as a self-generated reward motivating us to assimilate an ever-greater spectrum of sensory and affective states in our predictive representation of ourselves and the world and supporting the intentionality of contact. Expecting beauty, in the psychotherapeutic encounter, can help therapists tolerate uncertainty avoiding impulsive behaviours and to stay tuned to the process of change.

How does decision-making change during challenging times?

Prospect Theory, proposed and developed by Kahneman and Tversky, demonstrated that people do not make rational decisions based on expected utility, but are instead biased by specific cognitive tendencies leading to neglect, under- or over- consider information, depending on the context of presentation. In this vein, the present paper focuses on whether and how individual decision-making attitudes are prone to change in the presence of globally challenging events. We ran three partial replications of the Kahneman and Tversky (1979) paper, focusing on a set of eight prospects, after a terror attack (Paris, November 2015, 134 subjects) and during the Covid-19 pandemic, both during the first lockdown in Italy (Spring 2020, 176 subjects) and after the first reopening (140 subjects). The results confirm patterns of choice characterizing uncertain times, as shown by previous literature. In particular, we note significant increase of risk aversion, both in the gain and in the loss domains, that consistently emerged in the three replications. Given the nature of our sample, and the heterogeneity between the three periods investigated, we suggest that the phenomenon we present can be explained stress-related effects on decision making rather than by other economic effects, such as the income effect.

Preferred music listening is associated with perceptual learning enhancement at the expense of self-focused attention.

Can preferred music listening improve following attentional and learning performances? Here we suggest that this may be the case. In Experiment 1, following preferred and non-preferred musical-piece listening, we recorded electrophysiological responses to an auditory roving-paradigm. We computed the mismatch negativity (MMN - the difference between responses to novel and repeated stimulation), as an index of perceptual learning, and we measured the correlation between trial-by-trial EEG responses and the fluctuations in Bayesian Surprise, as a quantification of the neural attunement with stimulus informational value. Furthermore, during music listening, we recorded oscillatory cortical activity. MMN and trial-by-trial correlation with Bayesian surprise were significantly larger after subjectively preferred versus non-preferred music, indicating the enhancement of perceptual learning. The analysis on oscillatory activity during music listening showed a selective alpha power increased in response to preferred music, an effect often related to cognitive enhancements. In Experiment 2, we explored whether this learning improvement was realized at the expense of self-focused attention. Therefore, after preferred versus non-preferred music listening, we collected Heart-Beat Detection (HBD) accuracy, as a measure of the attentional focus toward the self. HBD was significantly lowered following preferred music listening. Overall, our results suggest the presence of a specific neural mechanism that, in response to aesthetically pleasing stimuli, and through the modulation of alpha oscillatory activity, redirects neural resources away from the self and toward the environment. This attentional up-weighting of external stimuli might be fruitfully exploited in a wide area of human learning activities, including education, neurorehabilitation and therapy.

A Virtual Navigation Training Promotes the Remapping of Space in Allocentric Coordinates: Evidence From Behavioral and Neuroimaging Data.

Allocentric space representations demonstrated to be crucial to improve visuo-spatial skills, pivotal in every-day life activities and for the development and maintenance of other cognitive abilities, such as memory and reasoning. Here, we present a series of three different experiments: Experiment 1, Discovery sample (23 young male participants); Experiment 2, Neuroimaging and replicating sample (23 young male participants); and Experiment 3 (14 young male participants). In the experiments, we investigated whether virtual navigation stimulates the ability to form spatial allocentric representations. With this aim, we used a novel 3D videogame (MindTheCity!), focused on the navigation of a virtual town. We verified whether playing at MindTheCity! enhanced the performance on spatial representational tasks (pointing to a specific location in space) and on a spatial memory test (asking participant to remember the location of specific objects). Furthermore, to uncover the neural mechanisms underlying the observed effects, we performed a preliminary fMRI investigation before and after the training with MindTheCity!. Results show that our virtual training enhances the ability to form allocentric representations and spatial memory (Experiment 1). Experiments 2 and 3 confirmed the behavioral results of Experiment 1. Furthermore, our preliminary neuroimaging and behavioral results suggest that the training activates brain circuits involved in higher-order mechanisms of information encoding, triggering the activation of broader cognitive processes and reducing the working load on memory circuits (Experiments 2 and 3).

Nice and easy: Mismatch negativity responses reveal a significant correlation between aesthetic appreciation and perceptual learning.

Neurocomputational models of cognition have framed aesthetic appreciation within the domain of knowledge acquisition and learning, suggesting that aesthetic appreciation might be considered as a hedonic feedback on successful perceptual learning dynamics. Such hypothesis, however, has never been empirically demonstrated yet. In order to investigate the relationship between aesthetic appreciation and learning, we measured the EEG mismatch negativity (MMN) response to more or less appreciated musical intervals, which is considered as a reliable index of perceptual learning. To this end, we measured the MMN to frequency (Hz) standard and frequency deviant musical intervals (Experiment 1) while participants were asked to judge their beauty. For each single stimulus, we also computed an information-theoretic index of perceptual learning (Bayesian surprise). We found that more appreciated musical intervals were associated with a larger MMN responses, which, in turn, correlated with trial-by-trial fluctuations in Bayesian surprise (Experiment 1). Coherently with previous results, Bayesian surprise was also found to correlate with slower RTs in a detection task of the same stimuli, evidencing that motor behavior is inhibited in presence of surprising sensory states triggering perceptual learning (Experiment 2). Our results provide empirical evidence of the existence of a positive correlation between aesthetic appreciation and EEG indexes of perceptual learning. We argue that the sense of beauty might have evolved to signal the nervous system new sensory knowledge acquisition and motivate the individual to search for informationally profitable stimuli. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Memorisation and implicit perceptual learning are enhanced for preferred musical intervals and chords.

Is it true that we learn better what we like? Current neuroaesthetic and neurocomputational models of aesthetic appreciation postulate the existence of a correlation between aesthetic appreciation and learning. However, even though aesthetic appreciation has been associated with attentional enhancements, systematic evidence demonstrating its influence on learning processes is still lacking. Here, in two experiments, we investigated the relationship between aesthetic preferences for consonance versus dissonance and the memorisation of musical intervals and chords. In Experiment 1, 60 participants were first asked to memorise and evaluate arpeggiated triad chords (memorisation phase), then, following a distraction task, chords' memorisation accuracy was measured (recognition phase). Memorisation resulted to be significantly enhanced for subjectively preferred as compared with non-preferred chords. To explore the possible neural mechanisms underlying these results, we performed an EEG study, directed to investigate implicit perceptual learning dynamics (Experiment 2). Through an auditory mismatch detection paradigm, electrophysiological responses to standard/deviant intervals were recorded, while participants were asked to evaluate the beauty of the intervals. We found a significant trial-by-trial correlation between subjective aesthetic judgements and single trial amplitude fluctuations of the ERP attention-related N1 component. Moreover, implicit perceptual learning, expressed by larger mismatch detection responses, was enhanced for more appreciated intervals. Altogether, our results showed the existence of a relationship between aesthetic appreciation and implicit learning dynamics as well as higher-order learning processes, such as memorisation. This finding might suggest possible future applications in different research domains such as teaching and rehabilitation of memory and attentional deficits.

Long-term limb immobilization modulates inhibition-related electrophysiological brain activity.

The effect of long-term immobilization on the motor system has been described during motor preparation, imagination or execution, when the movement has to be performed. But, what happens when the movement has to be suppressed? Does long-term limb immobilization modulate physiological responses underlying motor inhibition? Event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded in healthy participants performing a Go/Nogo task, either with both hands free to respond (T1/T4: before/after the immobilization) or when left-hand movements were prevented by a cast (T2: as soon as the cast was positioned; T3: after one week of immobilization). In the right (control) side, N140, N2, and P3 components showed the expected greater amplitude in Nogo than in Go trials, irrespective of the timepoint. On the contrary, in the left (manipulated) side, each component of the ERP responses to Nogo trials showed specific differences across timepoints, suggesting that the inhibition-related EEG activity is significantly reduced by the presence of the cast and the duration of the immobilization. Furthermore, inhibition-related theta band activity to Nogo stimuli decreased at post-immobilization blocked session (T3-blocked). Altogether these findings can be interpreted as a consequence of the plastic changes induced by the immobilization, as also demonstrated by the cast-related corticospinal excitability modulation (investigated by using TMS) and by the decreased beta band in response to Go and Nogo trials. Thus, only if we are free to move, then inhibitory responses are fully implemented. After one week of immobilization, the amount of inhibition necessary to block the movement is lower and, consequently, inhibitory-related responses are reduced.

Imageability effect on the functional brain activity during a naming to definition task.

Lexical competence includes both the ability to relate words to the external world as accessed through (mainly) visual perception (referential competence) and the ability to relate words to other words (inferential competence). We investigated the role of visual imagery in lexical inferential competence by using an auditory version of an inferential naming-to-definition task, in which visual imageability of both definitions and target words was manipulated. A visual imageability-related brain activity (bilateral posterior-parietal lobe and ventrotemporal cortex, including fusiform gyrus) was found during a "pure" inferential performance. The definition effect in high vs. low imageability contrast suggests that a visual-imagery strategy is spontaneously activated during the retrieval of a word from a high imageable definition; such an effect appears to be independent of whether the target word is high or low imageable. This contributes to the understanding of the neural correlates of semantic processing and the differential role of spontaneous visual imagery, depending on the semantic properties of the processed stimuli.

To Move or Not to Move? Functional Role of Ventral Premotor Cortex in Motor Monitoring During Limb Immobilization.

Anatomo-clinical evidence from motor-awareness disorders after brain-damages suggests that the premotor cortex (PMC) is involved in motor-monitoring of voluntary actions. Indeed, PMC lesions prevent patients from detecting the mismatch between intended, but not executed, movements with the paralyzed limb. This functional magnetic resonance imaging study compared, in healthy subjects, free movements against blocked movements, precluded by a cast. Cast-related corticospinal excitability changes were investigated by using transcranial magnetic stimulation. Immediately after the immobilization, when the cast prevented the execution of left-hand movements, the contralateral right (ventral) vPMC showed both increased hemodynamic activity and increased functional connectivity with the hand area in the right somatosensory cortex, suggesting a vPMC involvement in detecting the mismatch between planned and executed movements. Crucially, after 1 week of immobilization, when the motor system had likely learned that no movement could be executed and, therefore, predictions about motor consequences were changed, vPMC did not show the enhanced activity as if no incongruence has to be detected. This can be interpreted as a consequence of the plastic changes induced by long-lasting immobilization, as also proved by the cast-related corticospinal excitability modulation in our subjects. The present findings highlight the crucial role of vPMC in the anatomo-functional network generating the human motor-awareness.

Influence of the amount of body weight support on lower limb joints' kinematics during treadmill walking at different gait speeds: Reference data on healthy adults to define trajectories for robot assistance.

Several robotic devices have been developed for the rehabilitation of treadmill walking in patients with movement disorders due to injuries or diseases of the central nervous system. These robots induce coordinated multi-joint movements aimed at reproducing the physiological walking or stepping patterns. Control strategies developed for robotic locomotor training need a set of predefined lower limb joint angular trajectories as reference input for the control algorithm. Such trajectories are typically taken from normative database of overground unassisted walking. However, it has been demonstrated that gait speed and the amount of body weight support significantly influence joint trajectories during walking. Moreover, both the speed and the level of body weight support must be individually adjusted according to the rehabilitation phase and the residual locomotor abilities of the patient. In this work, 10 healthy participants (age range: 23-48 years) were asked to walk in movement analysis laboratory on a treadmill at five different speeds and four different levels of body weight support; besides, a trial with full body weight support, that is, with the subject suspended on air, was performed at two different cadences. The results confirm that lower limb kinematics during walking is affected by gait speed and by the amount of body weight support, and that on-air stepping is radically different from treadmill walking. Importantly, the results provide normative data in a numerical form to be used as reference trajectories for controlling robot-assisted body weight support walking training. An electronic addendum is provided to easily access to such reference data for different combinations of gait speeds and body weight support levels.

Neuroplastic Changes Induced by Cognitive Rehabilitation in Traumatic Brain Injury: A Review.

BACKGROUND: Cognitive deficits are among the most disabling consequences of traumatic brain injury (TBI), leading to long-term outcomes and interfering with the individual's recovery. One of the most effective ways to reduce the impact of cognitive disturbance in everyday life is cognitive rehabilitation, which is based on the principles of brain neuroplasticity and restoration. Although there are many studies in the literature focusing on the effectiveness of cognitive interventions in reducing cognitive deficits following TBI, only a few of them focus on neural modifications induced by cognitive treatment. The use of neuroimaging or neurophysiological measures to evaluate brain changes induced by cognitive rehabilitation may have relevant clinical implications, since they could add individualized elements to cognitive assessment. Nevertheless, there are no review studies in the literature investigating neuroplastic changes induced by cognitive training in TBI individuals. OBJECTIVE: Due to lack of data, the goal of this article is to review what is currently known on the cerebral modifications following rehabilitation programs in chronic TBI. METHODS: Studies investigating both the functional and structural neural modifications induced by cognitive training in TBI subjects were identified from the results of database searches. Forty-five published articles were initially selected. Of these, 34 were excluded because they did not meet the inclusion criteria. RESULTS: Eleven studies were found that focused solely on the functional and neurophysiological changes induced by cognitive rehabilitation. CONCLUSIONS: Outcomes showed that cerebral activation may be significantly modified by cognitive rehabilitation, in spite of the severity of the injury.

Communicative-pragmatic disorders in traumatic brain injury: The role of theory of mind and executive functions.

Previous research has shown that communicative-pragmatic ability, as well as executive functions (EF) and Theory of Mind (ToM), may be impaired in individuals with traumatic brain injury (TBI). However, the role of such cognitive deficits in explaining communicative-pragmatic difficulty in TBI has still not been fully investigated. The study examined the relationship between EF (working memory, planning and flexibility) and ToM and communicative-pragmatic impairment in patients with TBI. 30 individuals with TBI and 30 healthy controls were assessed using the Assessment Battery of Communication (ABaCo), and a set of cognitive, EF and ToM, tasks. The results showed that TBI participants performed poorly in comprehension and production tasks in the ABaCo, using both linguistic and extralinguistic means of expression, and that they were impaired in EF and ToM abilities. Cognitive difficulties were able to predict the pragmatic performance of TBI individuals, with both executive functions and ToM contributing to explaining patients' scores on the ABaCo.

Cognitive Pragmatic Rehabilitation Program in Schizophrenia: A Single Case fMRI Study.

Introduction. The present study was intended to evaluate the effects of a rehabilitative training, the Cognitive Pragmatic Treatment (CPT), aimed at improving communicative-pragmatic abilities and the related cognitive components, on the cerebral modifications of a single case patient diagnosed with schizophrenia. Methods. The patient underwent two functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) sessions, before and after the treatment. In order to assess brain changes, we calculated the Amplitude of Low Frequency Fluctuation (ALFF) index of the resting-state fMRI signal, which is interpreted as reflecting the intensity of the spontaneous regional activity of the brain. Behavioural measures of the patient's communicative performance were also gathered before and after training and at follow-up. Results. The patient improved his communicative performance in almost all tests. Posttraining stronger ALFF signal emerged in the superior, inferior, and medial frontal gyri, as well as the superior temporal gyri. Conclusions. Even if based on a single case study, these preliminary results show functional changes at the cerebral level that seem to support the patient's behavioural improvements.

Recovering two languages with the right hemisphere.

Converging evidence suggests that the right hemisphere (RH) plays an important role in language recovery from aphasia after a left hemisphere (LH) lesion. In this longitudinal study we describe the neurological, cognitive, and linguistic profile of A.C., a bilingual who, after a severe traumatic brain injury, developed a form of fluent aphasia that affected his two languages (i.e., Romanian and Italian). The trauma-induced parenchymal atrophy led to an exceptional ventricular dilation that, gradually, affected the whole left hemisphere. A.C. is now recovering both languages relying only on his right hemisphere. An fMRI experiment employing a bilingual covert verb generation task documented the involvement of the right middle temporal gyrus in processes of lexical selection and access. This case supports the hypothesis that the RH plays a role in language recovery from aphasia when the LH has suffered massive lesions.

Rehabilitation of Communicative Abilities in Patients with a History of TBI: Behavioral Improvements and Cerebral Changes in Resting-State Activity.

A targeted training program for the rehabilitation of communicative abilities-Cognitive Pragmatic Treatment (CPT)-has been developed and previously tested on a sample of patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI), whose performance was found to have improved. Since cortical plasticity has been recognized as the main mechanism of functional recovery, we investigated whether and how behavioral improvements following the training program are accompanied by brain modifications. Eight TBI patients took part in the training program and were behaviorally assessed pre- and post-treatment; six of these patients were also evaluated with pre- and post-treatment resting state (rs) functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). At the end of the rehabilitation program patients showed improvement in overall communicative performance, in both comprehension and production tasks. A follow-up retest revealed the stability of these results 3 months after completing the training program. At the brain level, we found significant increases in the amplitude of low frequency fluctuation (ALFF) index in the bilateral precentral gyrus, in the right middle and superior temporal gyri, in the right cingulate gyrus, and in the left inferior parietal lobule. We discuss these differences of brain activity in terms of their possible contribution to promoting recovery.