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BACKGROUND: The identification of specific circulating miRNAs has been proposed as a valuable tool for elucidating the pathophysiology of brain damage or injury and predicting patient outcomes. OBJECTIVE: This study aims to apply several bioinformatic tools in order to clarify miRNA interactions with potential genes involved in brain injury, emphasizing the need of using a computational approach to determine the most likely correlations between miRNAs and target genes. Specifically, this study centers on elucidating the roles of miR-34b, miR-34c, miR-135a, miR-200c, and miR-451a. METHODS: After a careful evaluation of different software available (analyzing the strengths and limitations), we applied three tools, one to perform an analysis of the validated targets (miRTarBase), and two to evaluate functional annotations (miRBase and TAM 2.0). RESULTS: Research findings indicate elevated levels of miR-135a and miR-34b in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) within the first day post-injury, while miR-200c and miR-34c were found to be upregulated after 7 days. Moreover, miR-451a and miR-135a were found overexpressed in the serum, while miRNAs 34b, 34c, and 200c, had lower serum levels at baseline post brain injury. CONCLUSION: This study emphasizes the use of computational methods in determining the most likely relationships between miRNAs and target genes by investigating several bioinformatic techniques to elucidate miRNA interactions with potential genes. Specifically, this study focuses on the functions of miR-34b, miR-34c, miR-135a, miR-200c, and miR-451a, providing an up-to-date overview and suggesting future research directions for identifying theranomiRNAs related to brain injury, both at the tissue and serum levels.
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Artificial intelligence (AI) is a multidisciplinary field intersecting computer science, cognitive science, and other disciplines, able to address the creation of systems that perform tasks generally requiring human intelligence. It consists of algorithms and computational methods that allow machines to learn from data, make decisions, and perform complex tasks, aiming to develop an intelligent system that can work independently or collaboratively with humans. Since AI technologies may help physicians in life-threatening disease prevention and diagnosis and make treatment smart and more targeted, they are spreading in health services. Indeed, humans and machines have unique strengths and weaknesses and can complement each other in providing and optimizing healthcare. However, the healthcare implementation of these technologies is related to emerging ethical and deontological issues regarding the fearsome reduction of doctors' decision-making autonomy and acting discretion, generally strongly conditioned by cognitive elements concerning the specific clinical case. Moreover, this new operational dimension also modifies the usual allocation system of responsibilities in case of adverse events due to healthcare malpractice, thus probably imposing a redefinition of the established medico-legal assessment criteria of medical professional liability. This article outlines the new challenges arising from AI healthcare integration and the possible ways to overcome them, with a focus on Italian legal framework. In this evolving and transitional context emerges the need to balance the human dimension with the artificial one, without mutual exclusion, for a new concept of medicine "with" machines and not "of" machines.
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Congenital Heart Diseases (CHDs) are a group of structural abnormalities or defects of the heart that are present at birth. CHDs could be connected to sudden death (SD), defined by the WHO (World Health Organization) as "death occurring within 24 h after the onset of the symptoms" in an apparently "healthy" subject. These conditions can range from relatively mild defects to severe, life-threatening anomalies. The prevalence of CHDs varies across populations, but they affect millions of individuals worldwide. This article aims to discuss the post-mortem investigation of death related to CHDs, exploring the forensic approach, current methodologies, challenges, and potential advancements in this challenging field. A further goal of this article is to provide a guide for understanding these complex diseases, highlighting the pivotal role of autopsy, histopathology, and genetic investigations in defining the cause of death, and providing evidence about the translational use of autopsy reports. Forensic investigations play a crucial role in understanding the complexities of CHDs and determining the cause of death accurately. Through collaboration between medical professionals and forensic experts, meticulous examinations, and analysis of evidence, valuable insights can be gained. These insights not only provide closure to the families affected but also contribute to the prevention of future tragedies.
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Autopsia , Causas de Muerte , Cardiopatías Congénitas , Humanos , Cardiopatías Congénitas/patología , Cardiopatías Congénitas/mortalidad , Cardiopatías Congénitas/genética , Medicina Legal/métodosRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Respect for human rights and bioethical principles in prisons is a crucial aspect of society and is proportional to the well-being of the general population. To date, these ethical principles have been lacking in prisons and prisoners are victims of abuse with strong repercussions on their physical and mental health. METHODS: A systematic review was performed, through a MESH of the following words (bioethics) AND (prison), (ethics) AND (prison), (bioethics) AND (jail), (ethics) AND (jail), (bioethics) AND (penitentiary), (ethics) AND (penitentiary), (prison) AND (human rights). Inclusion and exclusion criteria were defined and after PRISMA, 17 articles were included in the systematic review. RESULTS: Of the 17 articles, most were prevalence studies (n.5) or surveys (n.4), followed by cross-sectional studies (n.3), qualitative studies (n.1), retrospective (n.1) and an explanatory sequential mixed-methods study design (n.1). In most cases, the studies associated bioethics with prisoners' access to treatment for various pathologies such as vaccinations, tuberculosis, hepatitis, HIV, it was also found that bioethics in prisons was related to the mental health of prisoners, disability, ageing, the condition of women, the risk of suicide or with the request for end-of-life by prisoners. The results showed shortcomings in the system of maintaining bioethical principles and respect for human rights. CONCLUSIONS: Prisoners, in fact, find it difficult to access care, and have an increased risk of suicide and disability. Furthermore, they are often used as improper organ donors and have constrained autonomy that also compromises their willingness to have end-of-life treatments. In conclusion, prison staff (doctors, nurses, warders, managers) must undergo continuous refresher courses to ensure compliance with ethical principles and human rights in prisons.
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Derechos Humanos , Prisioneros , Prisiones , Humanos , Respeto , Discusiones Bioéticas , Bioética , Accesibilidad a los Servicios de Salud/éticaRESUMEN
Sudden unexpected postnatal collapse (SUPC) is a sudden collapse of the clinical conditions of a full-term or near-term newborn, within the first 7 days of life, that requires resuscitation with positive ventilation and who either dies, has hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, or requires intensive care. The incidence of SUPC is very low, and most often presents a negative prognosis. The BUB1B gene is a mitotic checkpoint of serine/threonine kinase B that encodes a protein crucial for maintaining the correct number of chromosomes during cell division. Mutations in the BUB1B gene are linked to mosaic variegated aneuploidy syndrome 1 (MVA1), a rare autosomal recessive disorder characterized by diffuse mosaic aneuploidies involving several chromosomes and tissues. This paper discusses a case of a newborn who had a spontaneous delivery. After 2 h and 10 min, the infant showed generalized hypotonia and cyanosis, and his doctors performed orotracheal intubation, cardiac massage, pharmacological hemodynamic therapy, mechanical ventilation, antibiotic therapy, and hypothermic treatment. The newborn was discharged after 5 months with the diagnosis of hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Suspecting an SUPC, a complete genetic analysis was performed demonstrating a compound heterozygous mutations in the BUB1B gene. The newborn died at 6 months of life, 1 month after discharge. A complete autopsy was performed, determining that the cause of death was due to sepsis starting from a brocopneumonic process, with outcomes of hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE). In this scenario, it is not possible to demonstrate the causal effect of this mutation, considering that it could play a causal or concausal role in the onset of SUPC. Further research based on multicenter studies, as well as on animal models, could be very useful to clarify the pathological effect of this mutation.
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Mutación , Proteínas Serina-Treonina Quinasas , Humanos , Recién Nacido , Proteínas Serina-Treonina Quinasas/genética , Masculino , Proteínas de Ciclo Celular/genética , Hipoxia-Isquemia Encefálica/genética , Muerte Súbita/etiología , Trastornos de los Cromosomas/genética , Hipotonía Muscular/genética , Mosaicismo , Cianosis/genéticaRESUMEN
Molecular biology has always represented an enviable tool in the fields of biosciences, diagnostics, and forensic sciences [...].
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Ciencias Forenses , Biología MolecularRESUMEN
Progress in DNA profiling techniques has made it possible to detect even the minimum amount of DNA at a crime scene (i.e., a complete DNA profile can be produced using as little as 100 pg of DNA, equivalent to only 15-20 human cells), leading to new defense strategies. While the evidence of a DNA trace is seldom challenged in court by a defendant's legal team, concerns are often raised about how the DNA was transferred to the location of the crime. This review aims to provide an up-to-date overview of the experimental work carried out focusing on indirect DNA transfer, analyzing each selected paper, the experimental method, the sampling technique, the extraction protocol, and the main results. Scopus and Web of Science databases were used as the search engines, including 49 papers. Based on the results of this review, one of the factors that influence secondary transfer is the amount of DNA shed by different individuals. Another factor is the type and duration of contact between individuals or objects (generally, more intimate or prolonged contact results in more DNA transfer). A third factor is the nature and quality of the DNA source. However, there are exceptions and variations depending on individual characteristics and environmental conditions. Considering that secondary transfer depends on multiple factors that interact with each other in unpredictable ways, it should be considered a complex and dynamic phenomenon that can affect forensic investigation in various ways, for example, placing a subject at a crime scene who has never been there. Correct methods and protocols are required to detect and prevent secondary transfer from compromising forensic evidence, as well as the correct interpretation through Bayesian networks. In this context, the definition of well-designed experimental studies combined with the use of new forensic techniques could improve our knowledge in this challenging field, reinforcing the value of DNA evidence in criminal trials.
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Dermatoglifia del ADN , ADN , Humanos , Teorema de Bayes , ADN/genética , Crimen , Proyectos de InvestigaciónRESUMEN
Crime scene investigation (CSI) is the complex act of reconstructing the dynamics that led to a crime and the circumstances of its perpetration. Crystallizing the CSI is a difficult task for the forensic pathologist; however, it is often requested by the public prosecutor and many judicial cases remain unsolved precisely for this reason. Recent years have seen an improvement in the ability of 3D scanning technology to obtain dense surface scans of large-scale spaces, for surveying, engineering, archaeology, and medical purposes such as forensics. The applications of this new technology are growing every day: forensic measurement of wounds in clinical reports, for example, reconstruction of traffic accidents, bullet trajectory studies in gunshot wounds, and 3D bloodstain pattern analysis. A retrospective analysis was conducted across all crime scene investigations performed by the forensic staff of the Department of Forensic Pathology of the University of Catania from January 2019 to June 2022. Inclusion criteria were the use of a laser scanner (LS), the use of a camera, a full investigative scene, and collection of circumstantial data thanks to the help of the judicial police. Cases in which the LS was not used were excluded. Out of 200 CSIs, 5 were included in the present study. In case number 1, the use of the LS made it possible to create a complete scale plan of the crime scene in a few hours, allowing a ship to be quickly returned to the judicial police officer. In case 2 (fall from a height), the LS clarified the suicidal intent of the deceased. In case number 3 it was possible to reconstruct a crime scene after many years. In case 4, the LS provided a great contribution in making a differential diagnosis between suicide and homicide. In case 5, the LS was fundamental for the COVID team in planning the study of COVID-19 pathways and areas within a hospital with the aim of reduction of nosocomial transmission. In conclusion, the use of the LS allowed the forensic staff to crystallize the investigative scene, making it a useful tool.
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This study aims to assess the situation of Italian hotspots for migrant reception during the COVID-19 pandemic, and specifically analyzing the situation of two hotspots located in the Sicily Region (Pozzallo harbor and Lampedusa Island), to identify critical issues. At the same time, we hypothesize solutions to guarantee the respect of human rights and suggest an operational protocol to be applied in similar situations, considering that the migration phenomenon is increasing and involving new geographical areas. Based on data obtained through the site inspections, the facilities of Pozzallo and Lampedusa exceeded their capacity to adequately contain the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 infection. Considering these findings, we suggest a practical workflow summarizing the main actions that should be applied to contain COVID-19, or other infectious disease, spreading in hotspots for migrants. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on migrants has received limited attention, although the migration phenomenon did not slow down during the pandemic period. Regarding the risk of spreading infectious diseases such as COVID-19, it is necessary that those countries who are most exposed to migration flows, such as Italy, plan dedicated strategies to minimize the possibility of transmission of SARS-CoV-2, using adequate protocols to monitor the possible insurgence of variants of interest (VOIs) or variants of concern (VOCs). Finally, it is important to state that these suggestions could be applied in any future pandemics.
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COVID-19 , Migrantes , Humanos , COVID-19/epidemiología , COVID-19/prevención & control , SARS-CoV-2 , Pandemias/prevención & control , Mar Mediterráneo , Italia/epidemiologíaRESUMEN
MiRNAs regulate both physiological and pathological heart functions. Altered expression of miRNAs is associated with cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), making miRNAs attractive therapeutic strategies for the diagnosis and treatment of heart diseases. A recent publication defined, for the first time, the term theranoMiRNA, meaning the miRNAs that may be used both for diagnosis and treatment. The use of in silico tools may be considered fundamental for these purposes, clarifying several molecular aspects, suggesting future directions for in vivo studies. This study aims to explore different bioinformatic tools in order to clarify miRNA interactions with candidate genes, demonstrating the need to use a computational approach when establishing the most probable associations between miRNAs and target genes. This study focused on the functions of miR-133a-3p, miR-21-5p, miR-499a-5p, miR-1-3p, and miR-126-3p, providing an up-to-date overview, and suggests future lines of research in the identification of theranoMiRNAs related to CVDs. Based on the results of the present study, we elucidated the molecular mechanisms that could be linked between miRNAs and CVDs, confirming that these miRNAs play an active role in the genesis and development of heart damage. Given that CVDs are the leading cause of death in the world, the identification of theranoMiRNAs is crucial, hence the need for a definition of in vivo studies in order to obtain further evidence in this challenging field of research.
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Enfermedades Cardiovasculares , Cardiopatías , MicroARNs , Humanos , Enfermedades Cardiovasculares/diagnóstico , Enfermedades Cardiovasculares/genética , MicroARNs/genética , MicroARNs/metabolismo , CorazónRESUMEN
MicroRNAs (miRNAs), small noncoding RNAs, are post-transcriptional gene regulators that can promote the degradation or decay of coding mRNAs, regulating protein synthesis. Many experimental studies have contributed to clarifying the functions of several miRNAs involved in regulatory processes at the cardiac level, playing a pivotal role in cardiovascular disease (CVD). This review aims to provide an up-to-date overview, with a focus on the past 5 years, of experimental studies on human samples to present a clear background of the latest advances to summarize the current knowledge and future perspectives. SCOPUS and Web of Science were searched using the following keywords: (miRNA or microRNA) AND (cardiovascular diseases); AND (myocardial infarction); AND (heart damage); AND (heart failure), including studies published from 1 January 2018 to 31 December 2022. After an accurate evaluation, 59 articles were included in the present systematic review. While it is clear that miRNAs are powerful gene regulators, all the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. The need for up-to-date data always justifies the enormous amount of scientific work to increasingly highlight their pathways. Given the importance of CVDs, miRNAs could be important both as diagnostic and therapeutic (theranostic) tools. In this context, the discovery of "TheranoMIRNAs" could be decisive in the near future. The definition of well-setout studies is necessary to provide further evidence in this challenging field.
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Enfermedades Cardiovasculares , Insuficiencia Cardíaca , MicroARNs , Infarto del Miocardio , Humanos , Enfermedades Cardiovasculares/genética , Enfermedades Cardiovasculares/tratamiento farmacológico , Insuficiencia Cardíaca/tratamiento farmacológico , MicroARNs/metabolismo , Infarto del Miocardio/genética , Infarto del Miocardio/tratamiento farmacológico , ARN Mensajero/genéticaRESUMEN
Penetrating injuries of the heart, named penetrating cardiac injury (PCI), may cause hemorrhagic shock as well as cardiac tamponade, leading to death if not treated immediately. This systematic review aims to highlight the main aspects of penetrating cardiac injuries after firearm wounds. The cases of 39 subjects (age 37.05 + 15.4) were selected (6 fatal cases). Specifically, 4/39 cases involved subjects under 18 y.o.; analyzing the entrance wound, in 30/39 cases it was located in the anterior chest, 4/39 in the posterior chest, 3/39 in the shoulder/axilla area, 1/39 in the neck, and 1/39 in the pelvis (gluteus). The exit wound was found in only 3/39 cases. Several factors may influence the prognosis: firstly, prompt intervention represents a crucial point, then considering the complications related to PCI, the most important are myocardial infarction, and projectile migration with embolization. The mortality rate is related to: (1) area and severity of the heart injury; (2) duration of transport and intervention; (3) contemporary lesion to other organ/s; (4) the quantity of blood lost; (5) and presence/absence of cardiac tamponade. Based on these findings, a correct approach in the management of PCI may be considered important from a forensic point of view, both as regards to medical liability and from the trial perspective.
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A correctly implemented and widely accepted vaccination campaign was the only truly effective weapon to reduce mortality and hospitalizations related to COVID-19. However, it was not 100% effective and has not eliminated COVID-19. Even though more than 60% of the worldwide population is fully vaccinated (meaning that these subjects have completed the recommended vaccine cycle), subjects continue to die from COVID-19, particularly in the presence of comorbidities. In this scenario, autopsies play a crucial role in understanding the pathophysiological mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 in vaccinated subjects and adapting therapies accordingly. This case report analyzes the death of a fully vaccinated patient who suffered from comorbidities and died from COVID-19; we provide a complete autopsy data set. On microscopic examination, the lungs showed massive interstitial pneumonia, areas of inflammation with interstitial lympho-plasma cell infiltrate, and interstitial edema. The liver showed granulocytes within the hepatic parenchyma. All these elements were consistent with previous published data on unvaccinated patients who had died from COVID-19. The present study is the first that analyzes, through a complete autopsy and a microscopic analysis of all organs, a death related to COVID-19 despite vaccine administration. In this regard, to the best of our knowledge, no other studies have been published reporting a complete autopsy. This study reports, on the one hand, the importance of vaccination programs in the fight against COVID-19, and, on the other hand, it hypothesizes that the vaccine does not offer complete immunity to SARS-CoV-2, particularly in elderly subjects with comorbidities.
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Cocaine, also known as methyl benzoylecgonine, is one of the most used drugs of abuse and one of the oldest; however, there has been a recent increase in the consumption of this substance. This trend has once again caught the attention of the scientific community. We discuss the current knowledge about this drug, focusing our attention on the forensic approach. Despite the fact that the cut-off of positivity to cocaine in drug tests is quite high, most current tests are able to detect much lower concentrations and could improve forensic sciences in both post-mortem investigations and in people screening. Immunological assays possessing substantial cross-reactivity to cocaine are particularly useful for screening oral fluid, hair, and post-mortem blood, where significant concentrations of the drug can be found. Liquid chromatography has now supplanted the previous techniques because it is very sensitive and specific and allows samples to be analyzed in a shorter time with only minimal sample preparation. Recent studies have focused on increased sensitivity, reduced processing times, and cheaper analysis.
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Cocaína , Humanos , Cocaína/análisis , Cromatografía Liquida , Detección de Abuso de Sustancias/métodos , Cabello/químicaRESUMEN
Determining whether an injury was sustained in life or not is one of the most important topics in forensic medicine. Morphological, cytological, and biological techniques are used to assess wound vitality. Several markers involved in vital and supravital reactions increase the accuracy of wound age estimation. This systematic review aimed to investigate the main vitality markers used in forensic medicine to date. This review was conducted by performing a systematic literature search on online resources (PubMed Central database and Google Scholar) until May 2022. We identified 46 articles published between 1987 and May 2022, analyzing a total of 53 markers. Based on the data of this review, the most studied vitality markers were adhesion molecules (fibronectin, p-selectin, CD 15), pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-1ß, TNF-α), cathepsin D, tryptase, and microRNAs (miRNAs). The most interesting studies were based on animal models: the different markers were investigated through immunohistochemical and qRT-PCR methods. The experimental methods were usually based on skin incisions, ligature marks, and burned skin areas. To date, it has not been possible to identify any gold standard markers based on the criteria of efficacy, specificity, and reliability; however, studies are still in progress. In the future, the use of miRNAs is promising as well as the combination of multiple markers. In this way, it will be possible to increase the sensitivity and specificity to validate systems or models for determining wound vitality in forensic practice.
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MicroARNs , Piel , Piel/química , Reproducibilidad de los Resultados , Medicina Legal/métodos , Factor de Necrosis Tumoral alfa/análisis , Biomarcadores/análisisRESUMEN
INTRODUCTION: Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AASs) are a complex cluster of synthetic derivatives of testosterone. AAS abuse is considered a major public health issue since it has increased among young/adolescent males. The use of steroids has a prevalence rate of 14% in young athletes and 30-75% in professional athletes or bodybuilders. AASs simulate the testosterone mechanism, binding the intracellular androgen receptor, and dysregulating the normal hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis in the same way as exogenous testosterone. Abuse can produce several side effects on organs, such as the genital system. The physio-pathological mechanisms that cause AAS abuse-related, genital system disorders in humans are still not completely known. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION: This study focuses on the effect of AASs on the male reproductive organs in humans and animals. EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS: A systematic review was performed using SCOPUS, PubMed, Google Scholar, and Web of Sciences database up to 31 December 2021 using the keywords: "anabolic-androgenic steroids," "erectile dysfunction," "spermatogenesis" and "infertility;" (anabolic agents) "erectile dysfunction," "spermatogenesis" and "infertility." The review of the literature identified 66 articles published until 2021. Sixty-two articles were included. The use of AASs induces testicular atrophy and azoospermia known as "anabolic steroid-induced hypogonadism." Anabolic steroid induced infertility is characterized by oligo or azoospermia and abnormalities in sperm motility and morphology. Although sperm quality recovers in most cases within 4 months of stopping anabolic steroid abuse, the negative consequences on spermatogenesis can take up to 3 years to disappear. Human studies reported a positive correlation between AAS abuse in athletes and an increase in morphologically abnormal spermatozoa. Animal studies showed the destruction of Leydig cells and testicular atrophy in animals treated with cycles of AASs. CONCLUSIONS: The present review of the literature highlights how little is known about the action of AASs on the male genital system. However, although their use is prohibited in many countries, the black market for these substances is still very frequent. The scientific landscape still has a lot to invest in the research of AAS on the male genital system to make young people even more aware of the negative aspects of these substances, contributing to the reduction of these products in an inappropriate way.
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Anabolizantes , Azoospermia , Disfunción Eréctil , Masculino , Humanos , Adolescente , Esteroides Anabólicos Androgénicos , Disfunción Eréctil/inducido químicamente , Semen , Motilidad Espermática , Congéneres de la Testosterona/efectos adversos , Testosterona , Anabolizantes/efectos adversos , Esteroides/efectos adversosRESUMEN
Congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation (CCAM) is a developmental lesion of the lungs and terminal respiratory structures, which is characterized by pseudocysts, lesions, and cystically dilated airways. CCAM is also known as congenital pulmonary airway malformation (CPAM). Various classification systems for CCAM have been described, and based on a recent classification, CCAMs are classified morphologically into five different types (Type 0, I, II, III, and IV) based on lesion sizes. The most common manifestation of CCAM in neonates and children is respiratory distress (RD). Spontaneous pneumothorax is a rare manifestation of CCAM. In this case report, we discuss a CCAM type-II case of a 38-day-old female infant with a radiological post-mortem diagnosis of a large left-side spontaneous pneumothorax. The gross examination of the lungs revealed multiple emphysematous air bubbles up to 0.5 cm in diameter, and the histological examination revealed focal pleural fibrosis, accompanied by thickened septa and atelectasis. In this scenario, the routine use of prenatal ultrasonography would be important to obtain a timely prenatal diagnosis. At the same time, improvements in surgical techniques, as well as greatly improved imaging techniques, have improved the outcome of these patients. Finally, it is important to remark on the importance of autopsy in the case of sudden infant death with a suspected CCAM.
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The identification of a reliable and accurate post-mortem interval (PMI) is a major challenge in the field of forensic sciences and criminal investigation. Several laboratory techniques have recently been developed that offer a better contribution to the estimation of PMI, in addition to the traditional physical or physico-chemical (body cooling, lividity, radiocarbon dating, rigor mortis), chemical (autolysis), microbiological (putrefaction), entomological, as well as botanical parameters. Molecular biology (degradation pattern of macromolecules such as proteins, DNA, RNA), biochemical analysis of biological fluids (such as blood, cerebrospinal fluid, and vitreous humor), and immunohistochemistry are some of the most recent technological innovations. A systematic review of the literature was performed with the aim of presenting an up-to-date overview on the correlation between the immunohistochemical (IHC) expression of specific antigenic markers at different PMIs. The systematic review was performed according to PRISMA guidelines. Scopus and PubMed were used as search engines from January 1, 1998 to March 1, 2022 to evaluate the effectiveness of immunohistochemistry in estimating PMI. The following keywords were used: (immunohistochemical) OR (immunohistochemistry) AND (time since death) OR (post-mortem interval) OR (PMI). A total of 6571 articles were collected. Ultimately, 16 studies were included in this review. The results of this systematic review highlighted that IHC techniques, in association with traditional methods, add, in Bayesian terms, additional information to define a more accurate time of death and PMI. However, current IHC results are numerically limited and more data and studies are desirable in the near future.
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PURPOSE OF REVIEW: This review aims to report the most recent (2020-2022) experimental scientific studies conducted on animal models, in order to highlight the relevant findings on the adverse effects related to androgen administration. RECENT FINDINGS: Forty-one studies published between January 2020 and July 2022 were selected. The majority of studies investigated the effects of one androgen, whereas only four studies analyzed the effects of two drugs. Nandrolone decanoate was the most investigated drug (20 articles), boldenone was tested in 8 articles, testosterone and stanozolol were used in 7 articles each, 17b-trenbolone, metandienone, and oxandrolone were tested in 1 article each. The articles clarify the adverse effects of androgen administration on the heart, brain, kidney, liver, reproductive and musculoskeletal systems. SUMMARY: The main findings of this review highlight that androgen administration increases inflammatory mediators, altering different biochemical parameters. The results concerning the reversibility of the adverse effects are controversial: on the one hand, several studies suggested that by stopping the androgen administration, the organs return to their initial state; on the other hand, the alteration of different biochemical parameters could generate irreversible organ damage. Moreover, this review highlights the importance of animal studies that should be better organized in order to clarify several important aspects related to androgen abuse to fill the gap in our knowledge in this research field.