Identification of methylation-regulated genes modulating microglial phagocytosis in hyperhomocysteinemia-exacerbated Alzheimer's disease.

BACKGROUND: Hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcy) has been linked to development of Alzheimer's disease (AD) neuropathologically characterized by the accumulation of amyloid ß (Aß). Microglia (MG) play a crucial role in uptake of Aß fibrils, and its dysfunction worsens AD. However, the effect of HHcy on MG Aß phagocytosis remains unstudied. METHODS: We isolated MG from the cerebrum of HHcy mice with genetic cystathionine-ß-synthase deficiency (Cbs-/-) and performed bulk RNA-seq. We performed meta-analysis over transcriptomes of Cbs-/- mouse MG, human and mouse AD MG, MG Aß phagocytosis model, human AD methylome, and GWAS AD genes. RESULTS: HHcy and hypomethylation conditions were identified in Cbs-/- mice. Through Cbs-/- MG transcriptome analysis, 353 MG DEGs were identified. Phagosome formation and integrin signaling pathways were found suppressed in Cbs-/- MG. By analyzing MG transcriptomes from 4 AD patient and 7 mouse AD datasets, 409 human and 777 mouse AD MG DEGs were identified, of which 37 were found common in both species. Through further combinatory analysis with transcriptome from MG Aß phagocytosis model, we identified 130 functional-validated Aß phagocytic AD MG DEGs (20 in human AD, 110 in mouse AD), which reflected a compensatory activation of Aß phagocytosis. Interestingly, we identified 14 human Aß phagocytic AD MG DEGs which represented impaired MG Aß phagocytosis in human AD. Finally, through a cascade of meta-analysis of transcriptome of AD MG, functional phagocytosis, HHcy MG, and human AD brain methylome dataset, we identified 5 HHcy-suppressed phagocytic AD MG DEGs (Flt1, Calponin 3, Igf1, Cacna2d4, and Celsr) which were reported to regulate MG/MΦ migration and Aß phagocytosis. CONCLUSIONS: We established molecular signatures for a compensatory response of Aß phagocytosis activation in human and mouse AD MG and impaired Aß phagocytosis in human AD MG. Our discoveries suggested that hypomethylation may modulate HHcy-suppressed MG Aß phagocytosis in AD.

Technologies Enabling Single-Molecule Super-Resolution Imaging of mRNA.

The transient nature of RNA has rendered it one of the more difficult biological targets for imaging. This difficulty stems both from the physical properties of RNA as well as the temporal constraints associated therewith. These concerns are further complicated by the difficulty in imaging endogenous RNA within a cell that has been transfected with a target sequence. These concerns, combined with traditional concerns associated with super-resolution light microscopy has made the imaging of this critical target difficult. Recent advances have provided researchers the tools to image endogenous RNA in live cells at both the cellular and single-molecule level. Here, we review techniques used for labeling and imaging RNA with special emphases on various labeling methods and a virtual 3D super-resolution imaging technique.

Flow-induced endothelial mitochondrial remodeling mitigates mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production and promotes mitochondrial DNA integrity in a p53-dependent manner.

Tumor suppressor p53 plays a pivotal role in orchestrating mitochondrial remodeling by regulating their content, fusion/fission processes, and intracellular signaling molecules that are associated with mitophagy and apoptosis pathways. In order to determine a molecular mechanism underlying flow-mediated mitochondrial remodeling in endothelial cells, we examined, herein, the role of p53 on mitochondrial adaptations to physiological flow and its relevance to vascular function using endothelial cell-specific p53 deficient mice. We observed no changes in aerobic capacity, basal blood pressure, or endothelial mitochondrial phenotypes in the endothelial p53 mull animals. However, after 7 weeks of voluntary wheel running exercise, blood pressure reduction and endothelial mitochondrial remodeling (biogenesis, elongation, and mtDNA replication) were substantially blunted in endothelial p53 null animals compared to the wild-type, subjected to angiotensin II-induced hypertension. In addition, endothelial mtDNA lesions were significantly reduced following voluntary running exercise in wild-type mice, but not in the endothelial p53 null mice. Moreover, in vitro studies demonstrated that unidirectional laminar flow exposure significantly increased key putative regulators for mitochondrial remodeling and reduced mitochondrial reactive oxygen species generation and mtDNA damage in a p53-dependent manner. Mechanistically, unidirectional laminar flow instigated translocalization of p53 into the mitochondrial matrix where it binds to mitochondrial transcription factor A, TFAM, resulting in improving mtDNA integrity. Taken together, our findings suggest that p53 plays an integral role in mitochondrial remodeling under physiological flow condition and the flow-induced p53-TFAM axis may be a novel molecular intersection for enhancing mitochondrial homeostasis in endothelial cells.

Endothelial Immunity Trained by Coronavirus Infections, DAMP Stimulations and Regulated by Anti-Oxidant NRF2 May Contribute to Inflammations, Myelopoiesis, COVID-19 Cytokine Storms and Thromboembolism.

To characterize transcriptomic changes in endothelial cells (ECs) infected by coronaviruses, and stimulated by DAMPs, the expressions of 1311 innate immune regulatomic genes (IGs) were examined in 28 EC microarray datasets with 7 monocyte datasets as controls. We made the following findings: The majority of IGs are upregulated in the first 12 hours post-infection (PI), and maintained until 48 hours PI in human microvascular EC infected by middle east respiratory syndrome-coronavirus (MERS-CoV) (an EC model for COVID-19). The expressions of IGs are modulated in 21 human EC transcriptomic datasets by various PAMPs/DAMPs, including LPS, LPC, shear stress, hyperlipidemia and oxLDL. Upregulation of many IGs such as nucleic acid sensors are shared between ECs infected by MERS-CoV and those stimulated by PAMPs and DAMPs. Human heart EC and mouse aortic EC express all four types of coronavirus receptors such as ANPEP, CEACAM1, ACE2, DPP4 and virus entry facilitator TMPRSS2 (heart EC); most of coronavirus replication-transcription protein complexes are expressed in HMEC, which contribute to viremia, thromboembolism, and cardiovascular comorbidities of COVID-19. ECs have novel trained immunity (TI), in which subsequent inflammation is enhanced. Upregulated proinflammatory cytokines such as TNFα, IL6, CSF1 and CSF3 and TI marker IL-32 as well as TI metabolic enzymes and epigenetic enzymes indicate TI function in HMEC infected by MERS-CoV, which may drive cytokine storms. Upregulated CSF1 and CSF3 demonstrate a novel function of ECs in promoting myelopoiesis. Mechanistically, the ER stress and ROS, together with decreased mitochondrial OXPHOS complexes, facilitate a proinflammatory response and TI. Additionally, an increase of the regulators of mitotic catastrophe cell death, apoptosis, ferroptosis, inflammasomes-driven pyroptosis in ECs infected with MERS-CoV and the upregulation of pro-thrombogenic factors increase thromboembolism potential. Finally, NRF2-suppressed ROS regulate innate immune responses, TI, thrombosis, EC inflammation and death. These transcriptomic results provide novel insights on the roles of ECs in coronavirus infections such as COVID-19, cardiovascular diseases (CVD), inflammation, transplantation, autoimmune disease and cancers.

Canonical Secretomes, Innate Immune Caspase-1-, 4/11-Gasdermin D Non-Canonical Secretomes and Exosomes May Contribute to Maintain Treg-Ness for Treg Immunosuppression, Tissue Repair and Modulate Anti-Tumor Immunity via ROS Pathways.

We performed a transcriptomic analyses using the strategies we pioneered and made the following findings: 1) Normal lymphoid Tregs, diseased kidney Tregs, splenic Tregs from mice with injured muscle have 3, 17 and 3 specific (S-) pathways, respectively; 2) Tumor splenic Tregs share 12 pathways with tumor Tregs; tumor splenic Tregs and tumor Tregs have 11 and 8 S-pathways, respectively; 3) Normal and non-tumor disease Tregs upregulate some of novel 2641 canonical secretomic genes (SGs) with 24 pathways, and tumor Tregs upregulate canonical secretomes with 17 pathways; 4) Normal and non-tumor disease tissue Tregs upregulate some of novel 6560 exosome SGs with 56 exosome SG pathways (ESP), tumor Treg ESP are more focused than other Tregs; 5) Normal, non-tumor diseased Treg and tumor Tregs upregulate some of novel 961 innate immune caspase-1 SGs and 1223 innate immune caspase-4 SGs to fulfill their tissue/SG-specific and shared functions; 6) Most tissue Treg transcriptomes are controlled by Foxp3; and Tumor Tregs had increased Foxp3 non-collaboration genes with ROS and 17 other pathways; 7) Immune checkpoint receptor PD-1 does, but CTLA-4 does not, play significant roles in promoting Treg upregulated genes in normal and non-tumor disease tissue Tregs; and tumor splenic and tumor Tregs have certain CTLA-4-, and PD-1-, non-collaboration transcriptomic changes with innate immune dominant pathways; 8) Tumor Tregs downregulate more immunometabolic and innate immune memory (trained immunity) genes than Tregs from other groups; and 11) ROS significantly regulate Treg transcriptomes; and ROS-suppressed genes are downregulated more in tumor Tregs than Tregs from other groups. Our results have provided novel insights on the roles of Tregs in normal, injuries, regeneration, tumor conditions and some of canonical and innate immune non-canonical secretomes via ROS-regulatory mechanisms and new therapeutic targets for immunosuppression, tissue repair, cardiovascular diseases, chronic kidney disease, autoimmune diseases, transplantation, and cancers.

Immunological Feature and Transcriptional Signaling of Ly6C Monocyte Subsets From Transcriptome Analysis in Control and Hyperhomocysteinemic Mice.

Background: Murine monocytes (MC) are classified into Ly6Chigh and Ly6Clow MC. Ly6Chigh MC is the pro-inflammatory subset and the counterpart of human CD14++CD16+ intermediate MC which contributes to systemic and tissue inflammation in various metabolic disorders, including hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcy). This study aims to explore molecule signaling mediating MC subset differentiation in HHcy and control mice. Methods: RNA-seq was performed in blood Ly6Chigh and Ly6Clow MC sorted by flow cytometry from control and HHcy cystathionine ß-synthase gene-deficient (Cbs-/-) mice. Transcriptome data were analyzed by comparing Ly6Chigh vs. Ly6Clow in control mice, Ly6Chigh vs. Ly6Clow in Cbs-/- mice, Cbs-/- Ly6Chigh vs. control Ly6Chigh MC and Cbs-/- Ly6Clow vs. control Ly6Clow MC by using intensive bioinformatic strategies. Significantly differentially expressed (SDE) immunological genes and transcription factor (TF) were selected for functional pathways and transcriptional signaling identification. Results: A total of 7,928 SDE genes and 46 canonical pathways derived from it were identified. Ly6Chigh MC exhibited activated neutrophil degranulation, lysosome, cytokine production/receptor interaction and myeloid cell activation pathways, and Ly6Clow MC presented features of lymphocyte immunity pathways in both mice. Twenty-four potential transcriptional regulatory pathways were identified based on SDE TFs matched with their corresponding SDE immunological genes. Ly6Chigh MC presented downregulated co-stimulatory receptors (CD2, GITR, and TIM1) which direct immune cell proliferation, and upregulated co-stimulatory ligands (LIGHT and SEMA4A) which trigger antigen priming and differentiation. Ly6Chigh MC expressed higher levels of macrophage (MΦ) markers, whereas, Ly6Clow MC highly expressed lymphocyte markers in both mice. HHcy in Cbs-/- mice reinforced inflammatory features in Ly6Chigh MC by upregulating inflammatory TFs (Ets1 and Tbx21) and strengthened lymphocytes functional adaptation in Ly6Clow MC by increased expression of CD3, DR3, ICOS, and Fos. Finally, we established 3 groups of transcriptional models to describe Ly6Chigh to Ly6Clow MC subset differentiation, immune checkpoint regulation, Ly6Chigh MC to MΦ subset differentiation and Ly6Clow MC to lymphocyte functional adaptation. Conclusions: Ly6Chigh MC displayed enriched inflammatory pathways and favored to be differentiated into MΦ. Ly6Clow MC manifested activated T-cell signaling pathways and potentially can adapt the function of lymphocytes. HHcy reinforced inflammatory feature in Ly6Chigh MC and strengthened lymphocytes functional adaptation in Ly6Clow MC.

Ultrasound May Suppress Tumor Growth, Inhibit Inflammation, and Establish Tolerogenesis by Remodeling Innatome via Pathways of ROS, Immune Checkpoints, Cytokines, and Trained Immunity/Tolerance.

BACKGROUND: The immune mechanisms underlying low-intensity ultrasound- (LIUS-) mediated suppression of inflammation and tumorigenesis remain poorly determined. METHODS: We used microarray datasets from the NCBI GEO DataSet repository and conducted comprehensive data-mining analyses, where we examined the gene expression of 1376 innate immune regulators (innatome genes (IGs) in cells treated with LIUS. RESULTS: We made the following findings: (1) LIUS upregulates proinflammatory IGs and downregulates metastasis genes in cancer cells, and LIUS upregulates adaptive immunity pathways but inhibits danger-sensing and inflammation pathways and promote tolerogenic differentiation in bone marrow (BM) cells. (2) LIUS upregulates IGs encoded for proteins localized in the cytoplasm, extracellular space, and others, but downregulates IG proteins localized in nuclear and plasma membranes, and LIUS downregulates phosphatases. (3) LIUS-modulated IGs act partially via several important pathways of reactive oxygen species (ROS), reverse signaling of immune checkpoint receptors B7-H4 and BTNL2, inflammatory cytokines, and static or oscillatory shear stress and heat generation, among which ROS is a dominant mechanism. (4) LIUS upregulates trained immunity enzymes in lymphoma cells and downregulates trained immunity enzymes and presumably establishes trained tolerance in BM cells. (5) LIUS modulates chromatin long-range interactions to differentially regulate IGs expression in cancer cells and noncancer cells. CONCLUSIONS: Our analysis suggests novel molecular mechanisms that are utilized by LIUS to induce tumor suppression and inflammation inhibition. Our findings may lead to development of new treatment protocols for cancers and chronic inflammation.

Nuclear Import of Adeno-Associated Viruses Imaged by High-Speed Single-Molecule Microscopy.

Understanding the detailed nuclear import kinetics of adeno-associated virus (AAV) through the nuclear pore complex (NPC) is essential for the application of AAV capsids as a nuclear delivery instrument as well as a target for drug development. However, a comprehensive understanding of AAV transport through the sub-micrometer NPCs in live cells calls for new techniques that can conquer the limitations of conventional fluorescence microscopy and electron microscopy. With recent technical advances in single-molecule fluorescence microscopy, we are now able to image the entire nuclear import process of AAV particles and also quantify the transport dynamics of viral particles through the NPCs in live human cells. In this review, we initially evaluate the necessity of single-molecule live-cell microscopy in the study of nuclear import for AAV particles. Then, we detail the application of high-speed single-point edge-excitation sub-diffraction (SPEED) microscopy in tracking the entire process of nuclear import for AAV particles. Finally, we summarize the major findings for AAV nuclear import by using SPEED microscopy.

Interleukin 35 Delays Hindlimb Ischemia-Induced Angiogenesis Through Regulating ROS-Extracellular Matrix but Spares Later Regenerative Angiogenesis.

Interleukin (IL) 35 is a novel immunosuppressive heterodimeric cytokine in IL-12 family. Whether and how IL-35 regulates ischemia-induced angiogenesis in peripheral artery diseases are unrevealed. To fill this important knowledge gap, we used loss-of-function, gain-of-function, omics data analysis, RNA-Seq, in vivo and in vitro experiments, and we have made the following significant findings: i) IL-35 and its receptor subunit IL-12RB2, but not IL-6ST, are induced in the muscle after hindlimb ischemia (HLI); ii) HLI-induced angiogenesis is improved in Il12rb2-/- mice, in ApoE-/-/Il12rb2-/- mice compared to WT and ApoE-/- controls, respectively, where hyperlipidemia inhibits angiogenesis in vivo and in vitro; iii) IL-35 cytokine injection as a gain-of-function approach delays blood perfusion recovery at day 14 after HLI; iv) IL-35 spares regenerative angiogenesis at the late phase of HLI recovery after day 14 of HLI; v) Transcriptome analysis of endothelial cells (ECs) at 14 days post-HLI reveals a disturbed extracellular matrix re-organization in IL-35-injected mice; vi) IL-35 downregulates three reactive oxygen species (ROS) promoters and upregulates one ROS attenuator, which may functionally mediate IL-35 upregulation of anti-angiogenic extracellular matrix proteins in ECs; and vii) IL-35 inhibits human microvascular EC migration and tube formation in vitro mainly through upregulating anti-angiogenic extracellular matrix-remodeling proteins. These findings provide a novel insight on the future therapeutic potential of IL-35 in suppressing ischemia/inflammation-triggered inflammatory angiogenesis at early phase but sparing regenerative angiogenesis at late phase.

Approaching Inflammation Paradoxes-Proinflammatory Cytokine Blockages Induce Inflammatory Regulators.

The mechanisms that underlie various inflammation paradoxes, metabolically healthy obesity, and increased inflammations after inflammatory cytokine blockades and deficiencies remain poorly determined. We performed an extensive -omics database mining, determined the expressions of 1367 innate immune regulators in 18 microarrays after deficiencies of 15 proinflammatory cytokines/regulators and eight microarray datasets of patients receiving Mab therapies, and made a set of significant findings: 1) proinflammatory cytokines/regulators suppress the expressions of innate immune regulators; 2) upregulations of innate immune regulators in the deficiencies of IFNγ/IFNγR1, IL-17A, STAT3 and miR155 are more than that after deficiencies of TNFα, IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-18, STAT1, NF-kB, and miR221; 3) IFNγ, IFNγR and IL-17RA inhibit 10, 59 and 39 proinflammatory cytokine/regulator pathways, respectively; in contrast, TNFα, IL-6 and IL-18 each inhibits only four to five pathways; 4) The IFNγ-promoted and -suppressed innate immune regulators have four shared pathways; the IFNγR1-promoted and -suppressed innate immune regulators have 11 shared pathways; and the miR155-promoted and -suppressed innate immune regulators have 13 shared pathways, suggesting negative-feedback mechanisms in their conserved regulatory pathways for innate immune regulators; 5) Deficiencies of proinflammatory cytokine/regulator-suppressed, promoted programs share signaling pathways and increase the likelihood of developing 11 diseases including cardiovascular disease; 6) There are the shared innate immune regulators and pathways between deficiency of TNFα in mice and anti-TNF therapy in clinical patients; 7) Mechanistically, up-regulated reactive oxygen species regulators such as myeloperoxidase caused by suppression of proinflammatory cytokines/regulators can drive the upregulation of suppressed innate immune regulators. Our findings have provided novel insights on various inflammation paradoxes and proinflammatory cytokines regulation of innate immune regulators; and may re-shape new therapeutic strategies for cardiovascular disease and other inflammatory diseases.

Innate-adaptive immunity interplay and redox regulation in immune response.

Innate and adaptive immune cell activation and infiltration is the key characteristic of tissue inflammation. The innate immune system is the front line of host defense in which innate immune cells are activated by danger signals, including pathogen- and danger-associated molecular pattern, and metabolite-associated danger signal. Innate immunity activation can directly contribute to tissue inflammation or immune resolution by phagocytosis and secretion of biologically active molecules, or indirectly via antigen-presenting cell (APC) activation-mediated adaptive immune responses. This review article describes the cellular and molecular interplay of innate-adaptive immune systems. Three major mechanisms are emphasized in this article for their role in facilitating innate-adaptive immunity interplay. 1) APC can be formed from classical and conditional innate immune cells to bridge innate-adaptive immune response. 2) Immune checkpoint molecular pairs connect innate and adaptive immune cells to direct one-way and two-way immune checkpoint reactions. 3) Metabolic reprogramming during immune responses leads to excessive cytosolic and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Increased NADPH oxidase-derived extracellular and intracellular ROS are mostly responsible for oxidative stress, which contributes to functional changes in immune cells. Further understanding of innate-adaptive immunity interplay and its underlying molecular basis would lead to the identification of therapeutic targets for immunological and inflammatory disease.

ROS systems are a new integrated network for sensing homeostasis and alarming stresses in organelle metabolic processes.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are critical for the progression of cardiovascular diseases, inflammations and tumors. However, the mechanisms of how ROS sense metabolic stress, regulate metabolic pathways and initiate proliferation, inflammation and cell death responses remain poorly characterized. In this analytic review, we concluded that: 1) Based on different features and functions, eleven types of ROS can be classified into seven functional groups: metabolic stress-sensing, chemical connecting, organelle communication, stress branch-out, inflammasome-activating, dual functions and triple functions ROS. 2) Among the ROS generation systems, mitochondria consume the most amount of oxygen; and nine types of ROS are generated; thus, mitochondrial ROS systems serve as the central hub for connecting ROS with inflammasome activation, trained immunity and immunometabolic pathways. 3) Increased nuclear ROS production significantly promotes cell death in comparison to that in other organelles. Nuclear ROS systems serve as a convergent hub and decision-makers to connect unbearable and alarming metabolic stresses to inflammation and cell death. 4) Balanced ROS levels indicate physiological homeostasis of various metabolic processes in subcellular organelles and cytosol, while imbalanced ROS levels present alarms for pathological organelle stresses in metabolic processes. Based on these analyses, we propose a working model that ROS systems are a new integrated network for sensing homeostasis and alarming stress in metabolic processes in various subcellular organelles. Our model provides novel insights on the roles of the ROS systems in bridging metabolic stress to inflammation, cell death and tumorigenesis; and provide novel therapeutic targets for treating those diseases. (Word count: 246).

The Alphavirus Sindbis Infects Enteroendocrine Cells in the Midgut of Aedes aegypti.

Transit of the arthropod-borne-virus (arbovirus) Sindbis (SINV) throughout adult female mosquitoes initiates with its attachment to the gut lumen, entry and amplification in midgut cells, followed by dissemination into the hemolymph. Free-mated adult females, aged day 5-7, were proffered a viremic blood suspension via sausage casings containing SINV-TaV-Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) at a final titer of 106 PFU/mL. Midguts (MGs) from fully engorged mosquitoes were resected on days 5 and 7 post-bloodmeal, and immunolabeled using FMRFamide antibody against enteroendocrine cells (ECs) with a TX-Red secondary antibody. Following immunolabeling, the organs were investigated via laser confocal microscopy to identify the distribution of GFP and TX-Red. Infection using this reporter virus was observed as multiple GFP expression foci along the posterior midgut (PMG) epithelium and ECs were observed as TX-Red labeled cells scattered along the entire length of the MG. Our results demonstrated that SINVGFP did infect ECs, as indicated by the overlapping GFP and TX-Red channels shown as yellow in merged images. We propose that ECs may be involved in the SINV infection pathway in the mosquito MG. Due to the unique role that ECs have in the exocytosis of secretory granules from the MG and the apical-basolateral position of ECs in the PMG monolayer, we speculate that these cells may assist as a mechanism for arboviruses to cross the gut barriers. These findings suggest that MG ECs are involved in arbovirus infection of the invertebrate host.

Vascular Endothelial Cells and Innate Immunity.

In addition to the roles of endothelial cells (ECs) in physiological processes, ECs actively participate in both innate and adaptive immune responses. We previously reported that, in comparison to macrophages, a prototypic innate immune cell type, ECs have many innate immune functions that macrophages carry out, including cytokine secretion, phagocytic function, antigen presentation, pathogen-associated molecular patterns-, and danger-associated molecular patterns-sensing, proinflammatory, immune-enhancing, anti-inflammatory, immunosuppression, migration, heterogeneity, and plasticity. In this highlight, we introduce recent advances published in both ATVB and many other journals: (1) several significant characters classify ECs as novel immune cells not only in infections and allograft transplantation but also in metabolic diseases; (2) several new receptor systems including conditional danger-associated molecular pattern receptors, nonpattern receptors, and homeostasis associated molecular patterns receptors contribute to innate immune functions of ECs; (3) immunometabolism and innate immune memory determine the innate immune functions of ECs; (4) a great induction of the immune checkpoint receptors in ECs during inflammations suggests the immune tolerogenic functions of ECs; and (5) association of immune checkpoint inhibitors with cardiovascular adverse events and cardio-oncology indicates the potential contributions of ECs as innate immune cells.

Confocal Analysis of the Distribution and Persistence of Sindbis Virus (TaV-GFP) Infection in Midguts of Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes.

Biological transmission of arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) to vertebrate hosts by hematophagous insects poses a global threat because such arboviruses can result in a range of serious public health infectious diseases. Sindbis virus (SINV), the prototype Alphavirus, was used to track infections in the posterior midgut (PMG) of Aedes aegypti adult mosquitoes. Females were fed viremic blood containing a virus reporter, SINV [Thosea asigna virus-green fluorescent protein (TaV-GFP)], that leaves a fluorescent signal in infected cells. We assessed whole-mount PMGs to identify primary foci, secondary target tissues, distribution, and virus persistence. Following a viremic blood meal, PMGs were dissected and analyzed at various days of post blood-feeding. We report that virus foci indicated by GFP in midgut epithelial cells resulted in a 9.8% PMG infection and a 10.8% dissemination from these infected guts. The number of virus foci ranged from 1 to 3 per individual PMG and was more prevalent in the PMG-middle > PMG-frontal > PMG-caudal regions. SINV TaV-GFP was first observed in the PMG (primary target tissue) at 3 days post blood-feeding, was sequestered in circumscribed foci, replicated in PMG peristaltic muscles (secondary target tissue) following dissemination, and GFP was observed to persist in PMGs for 30 days postinfection.

End-stage renal disease is different from chronic kidney disease in upregulating ROS-modulated proinflammatory secretome in PBMCs - A novel multiple-hit model for disease progression.

BACKGROUND: The molecular mechanisms underlying chronic kidney disease (CKD) transition to end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and CKD acceleration of cardiovascular and other tissue inflammations remain poorly determined. METHODS: We conducted a comprehensive data analyses on 7 microarray datasets in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from patients with CKD and ESRD from NCBI-GEO databases, where we examined the expressions of 2641 secretome genes (SG). RESULTS: 1) 86.7% middle class (molecular weight >500 Daltons) uremic toxins (UTs) were encoded by SGs; 2) Upregulation of SGs in PBMCs in patients with ESRD (121 SGs) were significantly higher than that of CKD (44 SGs); 3) Transcriptomic analyses of PBMC secretome had advantages to identify more comprehensive secretome than conventional secretomic analyses; 4) ESRD-induced SGs had strong proinflammatory pathways; 5) Proinflammatory cytokines-based UTs such as IL-1ß and IL-18 promoted ESRD modulation of SGs; 6) ESRD-upregulated co-stimulation receptors CD48 and CD58 increased secretomic upregulation in the PBMCs, which were magnified enormously in tissues; 7) M1-, and M2-macrophage polarization signals contributed to ESRD- and CKD-upregulated SGs; 8) ESRD- and CKD-upregulated SGs contained senescence-promoting regulators by upregulating proinflammatory IGFBP7 and downregulating anti-inflammatory TGF-ß1 and telomere stabilizer SERPINE1/PAI-1; 9) ROS pathways played bigger roles in mediating ESRD-upregulated SGs (11.6%) than that in CKD-upregulated SGs (6.8%), and half of ESRD-upregulated SGs were ROS-independent. CONCLUSIONS: Our analysis suggests novel secretomic upregulation in PBMCs of patients with CKD and ESRD, act synergistically with uremic toxins, to promote inflammation and potential disease progression. Our findings have provided novel insights on PBMC secretome upregulation to promote disease progression and may lead to the identification of new therapeutic targets for novel regimens for CKD, ESRD and their accelerated cardiovascular disease, other inflammations and cancers. (Total words: 279).

Tissue Treg Secretomes and Transcription Factors Shared With Stem Cells Contribute to a Treg Niche to Maintain Treg-Ness With 80% Innate Immune Pathways, and Functions of Immunosuppression and Tissue Repair.

We used functional -omics angles and examined transcriptomic heterogeneity in CD4+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Treg) from spleen (s-Treg), lymph nodes (LN-Treg), intestine (int-Treg), and visceral adipose tissue (VAT-Treg), and made significant findings: 1) Five new shared Treg genes including NIBAN, TNFRSF1b, DUSP4,VAV2, and KLRG1, and 68 new signatures are identified. Among 27 signaling pathways shared in four tissue Treg, 22 pathways are innate immune pathways (81.5%); 2) s-Treg, LN-Treg, int-Treg, and VAT-Treg have zero, 49, 45, and 116 upregulated pathways, respectively; 3) 12, 7, and 15 out of 373 CD markers are identified as specific for LN-Treg, int-Treg, and VAT-Treg, respectively, which may initiate innate immune signaling; 4) 7, 49, 44, and 79 increased cytokines out of 1176 cytokines are identified for four Treg, respectively, suggesting that Treg have much more secretory proteins/cytokines than IL-10, TGF-ß, and IL-35; 5) LN-Treg, int-Treg, and VAT-Treg have 13 additional secretory functions more than s-Treg, found by analyzing 1,706 secretomic genes; 6) 2, 20, 25, and 43 increased transcription factors (TFs) out of 1,496 TFs are identified four Treg, respectively; 7) LN-Treg and int-Treg have increased pyroptosis regulators but VAT-Treg have increased apoptosis regulators; 8) 1, 15, 19, and 31 increased kinases out of 661 kinome are identified for s-Treg, LN-Treg, int-Treg, and VAT-Treg, respectively; 9) comparing with that of s-Treg, LN-Treg, int-Treg, and VAT-Treg increase activated cluster (clusters 1-3) markers; and decrease resting cluster (clusters 4-6) markers; and 10) Treg promote tissue repair by sharing secretomes and TFs AHR, ETV5, EGR1, and KLF4 with stem cells, which partially promote upregulation of all the groups of Treg genes. These results suggest that stem cell-shared master genes make tissue Treg as the first T cell type using a Treg niche to maintain their Treg-ness with 80% innate immune pathways, and triple functions of immunosuppression, tissue repair, and homeostasis maintenance. Our results have provided novel insights on the roles of innate immune pathways on Treg heterogeneity and new therapeutic targets for immunosuppression, tissue repair, cardiovascular diseases, chronic kidney disease, autoimmune diseases, transplantation, and cancers.

Twenty Novel Disease Group-Specific and 12 New Shared Macrophage Pathways in Eight Groups of 34 Diseases Including 24 Inflammatory Organ Diseases and 10 Types of Tumors.

The mechanisms underlying pathophysiological regulation of tissue macrophage (Mφ) subsets remain poorly understood. From the expression of 207 Mφ genes comprising 31 markers for 10 subsets, 45 transcription factors (TFs), 56 immunometabolism enzymes, 23 trained immunity (innate immune memory) enzymes, and 52 other genes in microarray data, we made the following findings. (1) When 34 inflammation diseases and tumor types were grouped into eight categories, there was differential expression of the 31 Mφ markers and 45 Mφ TFs, highlighted by 12 shared and 20 group-specific disease pathways. (2) Mφ in lung, liver, spleen, and intestine (LLSI-Mφ) express higher M1 Mφ markers than lean adipose tissue Mφ (ATMφ) physiologically. (3) Pro-adipogenic TFs C/EBPα and PPARγ and proinflammatory adipokine leptin upregulate the expression of M1 Mφ markers. (4) Among 10 immune checkpoint receptors (ICRs), LLSI-Mφ and bone marrow (BM) Mφ express higher levels of CD274 (PDL-1) than ATMφ, presumably to counteract the M1 dominant status via its reverse signaling behavior. (5) Among 24 intercellular communication exosome mediators, LLSI- and BM- Mφ prefer to use RAB27A and STX3 than RAB31 and YKT6, suggesting new inflammatory exosome mediators for propagating inflammation. (6) Mφ in peritoneal tissue and LLSI-Mφ upregulate higher levels of immunometabolism enzymes than does ATMφ. (7) Mφ from peritoneum and LLSI-Mφ upregulate more trained immunity enzyme genes than does ATMφ. Our results suggest that multiple new mechanisms including the cell surface, intracellular immunometabolism, trained immunity, and TFs may be responsible for disease group-specific and shared pathways. Our findings have provided novel insights on the pathophysiological regulation of tissue Mφ, the disease group-specific and shared pathways of Mφ, and novel therapeutic targets for cancers and inflammations.

Ly6C+ Inflammatory Monocyte Differentiation Partially Mediates Hyperhomocysteinemia-Induced Vascular Dysfunction in Type 2 Diabetic db/db Mice.

OBJECTIVE: Hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcy) is a potent risk factor for diabetic cardiovascular diseases. We have previously reported that hyperhomocysteinemia potentiates type 1 diabetes mellitus-induced inflammatory monocyte differentiation, vascular dysfunction, and atherosclerosis. However, the effects of hyperhomocysteinemia on vascular inflammation in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and the underlying mechanism are unknown. Approach and Results: Here, we demonstrate that hyperhomocysteinemia was induced by a high methionine diet in control mice (homocysteine 129 µmol/L), which was further worsened in T2DM db/db mice (homocysteine 180 µmol/L) with aggravated insulin intolerance. Hyperhomocysteinemia potentiated T2DM-induced mononuclear cell, monocyte, inflammatory monocyte (CD11b+Ly6C+), and M1 macrophage differentiation in periphery and aorta, which were rescued by folic acid-based homocysteine-lowering therapy. Moreover, hyperhomocysteinemia exacerbated T2DM-impaired endothelial-dependent aortic relaxation to acetylcholine. Finally, transfusion of bone marrow cells depleted for Ly6C by Ly6c shRNA transduction improved insulin intolerance and endothelial-dependent aortic relaxation in hyperhomocysteinemia+T2DM mice. CONCLUSIONS: Hyperhomocysteinemia potentiated systemic and vessel wall inflammation and vascular dysfunction partially via inflammatory monocyte subset induction in T2DM. Inflammatory monocyte may be a novel therapeutic target for insulin resistance, inflammation, and cardiovascular complications in hyperhomocysteinemia+T2DM.

HDL subclass proteomic analysis and functional implication of protein dynamic change during HDL maturation.

Recent clinical trials reported that increasing high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C) levels does not improve cardiovascular outcomes. We hypothesize that HDL proteome dynamics determine HDL cardioprotective functions. In this study, we characterized proteome profiles in HDL subclasses and established their functional connection. Mouse plasma was fractionized by fast protein liquid chromatography, examined for protein, cholesterial, phospholipid and trigliceride content. Small, medium and large (S/M/L)-HDL subclasseses were collected for proteomic analysis by mass spectrometry. Fifty-one HDL proteins (39 in S-HDL, 27 in M-HDL and 29 in L-HDL) were identified and grouped into 4 functional categories (lipid metabolism, immune response, coagulation, and others). Eleven HDL common proteins were identified in all HDL subclasses. Sixteen, 3 and 7 proteins were found only in S-HDL, M-HDL and L-HDL, respectively. We established HDL protein dynamic distribution in S/M/L-HDL and developed a model of protein composition change during HDL maturation. We found that cholesterol efflux and immune response are essential functions for all HDL particles, and amino acid metabolism is a special function of S-HDL, whereas anti-coagulation is special for M-HDL. Pon1 is recruited into M/L-HDL to provide its antioxidative function. ApoE is incorporated into L-HDL to optimize its cholesterial clearance function. Next, we acquired HDL proteome data from Pubmed and identified 12 replicated proteins in human and mouse HDL particle. Finally, we extracted 3 shared top moleccular pathways (LXR/RXR, FXR/RXR and acute phase response) for all HDL particles and 5 top disease/bio-functions differentially related to S/M/L-HDL subclasses, and presented one top net works for each HDL subclass. We conclude that beside their essencial functions of cholesterol efflux and immune response, HDL aquired antioxidative and cholesterol clearance functions by recruiting Pon1 and ApoE during HDL maturation.