Mass detection on mammograms: influence of signal shape uncertainty on human and model observers.

We studied the influence of signal variability on human and model observers for detection tasks with realistic simulated masses superimposed on real patient mammographic backgrounds and synthesized mammographic backgrounds (clustered lumpy backgrounds, CLB). Results under the signal-known-exactly (SKE) paradigm were compared with signal-known-statistically (SKS) tasks for which the observers did not have prior knowledge of the shape or size of the signal. Human observers' performance did not vary significantly when benign masses were superimposed on real images or on CLB. Uncertainty and variability in signal shape did not degrade human performance significantly compared with the SKE task, while variability in signal size did. Implementation of appropriate internal noise components allowed the fit of model observers to human performance.

Improving mammographic decision accuracy by incorporating observer ratings with interpretation time.

Mammography is currently the most established technique for the early detection of breast cancer. However, mammography would benefit from further improvements as it does produce some errors, such as not finding all early-stage cancers. The objectives of this study were first, to measure the timing of correct and incorrect reading decisions in mammography and second, to exploit those dependencies to improve accuracy in mammographic interpretation. To address these objectives, an experiment was conducted where experienced breast imaging radiologists reviewed 400 mammographic regions equally divided among images that contained simulated benign masses, malignant masses, malignant microcalcifications and no lesions. The experiment recorded the radiologists' decision as well as the length of time the mammogram was interpreted in. The experiment results showed that incorrect detection as well as incorrect classification decisions were associated with longer interpretation times (p<0.0001). The timing results were used to create a model that would flag cases for review that had a higher probability of error. The flagged cases had a median accuracy drop of 13% for detection decisions and 16% for classification decisions compared with unflagged cases. This suggests that interpretation time can be incorporated into mammographic decision-making in order to identify cases with higher probabilities of perceptual error that require further review.

CO2 snow depth and subsurface water-ice abundance in the northern hemisphere of Mars.

Observations of seasonal variations of neutron flux from the high-energy neutron detector (HEND) on Mars Odyssey combined with direct measurements of the thickness of condensed carbon dioxide by the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) on Mars Global Surveyor show a latitudinal dependence of northern winter deposition of carbon dioxide. The observations are also consistent with a shallow substrate consisting of a layer with water ice overlain by a layer of drier soil. The lower ice-rich layer contains between 50 and 75 weight % water, indicating that the shallow subsurface at northern polar latitudes on Mars is even more water rich than that in the south.

Maps of subsurface hydrogen from the high energy neutron detector, Mars Odyssey.

After 55 days of mapping by the High Energy Neutron Detector onboard Mars Odyssey, we found deficits of high-energy neutrons in the southern highlands and northern lowlands of Mars. These deficits indicate that hydrogen is concentrated in the subsurface. Modeling suggests that water ice-rich layers that are tens of centimeters in thickness provide one possible fit to the data.

Magellan: mission summary.

The Magellan radar mapping mission is in the process of producing a global, high-resolution image and altimetry data set of Venus. Despite initial communications problems, few data gaps have occurred. Analysis of Magellan data is in the initial stages. The radar system data are of high quality, and the planned performance is being achieved in terms of spatial resolution and geometric and radiometric accuracy. Image performance exceeds expectations, and the image quality and mosaickability are extremely good. Future plans for the mission include obtaining gravity data, filling gaps in the initial map, and conducting special studies with the radar.

An overview of venus geology.

The Magellan spacecraft is producing comprehensive image and altimetry data for the planet Venus. Initial geologic mapping of the planet reveals a surface dominated by volcanic plains and characterized by extensive volcanism and tectonic deformation. Geologic and geomorphologic units include plains terrains, tectonic terrains, and surficial material units. Understanding the origin of these units and the relation between them is an ongoing task of the Magellan team.

Magellan: initial analysis of venus surface modification.

Initial Magellan observations reveal a planet with high dielectric constant materials exposed preferentially in elevated regions with high slopes, ejecta deposits extending up to 1000 kilometers to the west of several impact craters, windblown deposits and features in areas where there are both obstacles and a source of particulate material, and evidence for slow, steady degradation by atmosphere-surface interactions and mass movements.

Venus volcanism: initial analysis from magellan data.

Magellan images confirm that volcanism is widespread and has been fimdamentally important in the formation and evolution of the crust of Venus. High-resolution imaging data reveal evidence for intrusion (dike formation and cryptodomes) and extrusion (a wide range of lava flows). Also observed are thousands of small shield volcanoes, larger edifices up to several hundred kilometers in diameter, massive outpourings of lavas, and local pyroclastic deposits. Although most features are consistent with basaltic compositions, a number of large pancake-like domes are morphologically similar to rhyolite-dacite domes on Earth. Flows and sinuous channels with lengths of many hundreds of kilometers suggest that extremely high effusion rates or very fluid magmas (perhaps komatiites) may be present. Volcanism is evident in various tectonic settings (coronae, linear extensional and compressional zones, mountain belts, upland rises, highland plateaus, and tesserae). Volcanic resurfacing rates appear to be low (less than 2 Km(3)/yr) but the significance of dike formation and intrusions, and the mode of crustal formation and loss remain to be established.

Evidence for highly reflecting materials on the surface and subsurface of vensus.

Radar images at a 12.5-centimeter wavelength made with the Goldstone radar interferometer in 1980 and 1986, together with lunar radar images and recent Venera 15 and 16 data, indicate that material on the surface and subsurface of Venus has a Fresnel reflectivity in excess of 50 percent. Such high reflectivities have been reported on the surface in mountainous regions. Material of high reflectivity may also underlie lower reflectivity surficial materials of the plains regions, where it has been excavated by impact cratering in some areas.

Shuttle imaging radar experiment.

The shuttle imaging radar (SIR-A) acquired images of a variety of the earth's geologic areas covering about 10 million square kilometers. Structural and geomorphic features such as faults, folds, outcrops, and dunes are clearly visible in both tropical and arid regions. The combination of SIR-A and Seasat images provides additional information about the surface physical properties: topography and roughness. Ocean features were also observed, including large internal waves in the Andaman Sea.

Surface of venus: evidence of diverse landforms from radar observations.

Recent radar images of the surface of Venus reveal a complex and varied terrain. By applying a set of simplifying assumptions about the nature of the surfaces returning the radar signal, it is possible to make a number of plausible interpretations. In one region on Venus, several circular features have the gross morphology of degraded impact craters. If they are indeed of impact origin, these features suggest that there exist on Venus areas which are ancient and where erosion or resurfacing has not been as intense or as pervasive as on the earth. In other regions there are intriguing features that may evidence active internal processes. One is a large trough-like depression (0 degrees , 76 degrees W; measuring 1400 by 150 by 2 kilometers) planimetrically suggestive of both the Valles Marineris on Mars and the East African Rift on the earth. Another feature, about 250 kilometers in diameter and of positive relief, includes an 80-kilometer-diameter circular depression at its summit, suggestive of a large volcanic construct. A third region, near 0 degrees , 10 degrees E, contains roughly parallel ranges of mountains separated by valley-like features, with relief varying from small isolated hills several hundred meters high to low ranges on the order of 1000 meters to large mountains approaching 2 kilometers in height. If Venus has a mobile crust similar to the earth's, these mountains may have been produced by compressional tectonics. These interpretations of the radar data indicate that Venus has been a geologically active planet which has developed diverse landforms and therefore is an exciting candidate for future exploration.

The surface of Mars: the view from the viking 2 lander.

Viking 2 lander began imaging the surface of Mars at Utopia Planitia on 3 September 1976. The surface is a boulder-strewn reddish desert cut by troughs that probably form a polygonal network. A plateau can be seen to the east of the spacecraft, which for the most probable lander location is approximately the direction of a tongue of ejecta from the crater Mie. Boulders at the lander 2 site are generally more vesicular than those near lander i. Fines at both lander sites appear to be very fine-grained and to be bound in a duricrust. The pinkish color of the sky, similar to that observed at the lander I site, indicates suspension of surface material. However, the atmospheric optical depth is less than that at the lander I site. After dissipation of a cloud of dust stirred during landing, no changes other than those stemming from sampling activities have been detected in the landscape. No signs of large organisms are apparent at either landing site.