Human adenoviruses in children with gastroenteritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

PURPOSE: Human adenoviruses (HAdVs) have always been suggested as one of the main causes of gastroenteritis in children. However, no comprehensive report on the global epidemiology of these viruses in pediatric gastroenteritis is available. METHODS: A systematic search was conducted to obtain published papers from 2003 to 2023 in three main databases PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. RESULTS: The estimated global pooled prevalence of HAdV infection in children with gastroenteritis was 10% (95% CI: 9-11%), with a growing trend after 2010. The highest prevalence was observed in Africa (20%, 95% CI: 14-26%). The prevalence was higher in inpatients (11%; 95% CI: 8-13%) and patients aged 5 years old and younger (9%; 95% CI: 7-10%). However, no significant difference was observed between male and female patients (P = 0.63). The most prevalent species was found to be the species F (57%; 95% CI: 41-72%). The most common HAdVs observed in children with gastroenteritis were types 40/41, 38, and 2. Analysis of case-control studies showed an association between HAdV and gastroenteritis in children (OR: 2.28, 95% CI; 1.51-3.44). CONCLUSION: This study provided valuable insights into the importance of HAdVs in children with gastroenteritis, especially in hospitalized and younger children. The results can be used in future preventive measurements and the development of effective vaccines.

An unusual imaging presentation of pediatric bacterial meningoencephalitis: a case-report study.

Background: Bacterial meningoencephalitis is a serious infection affecting the brain and its surrounding membranes. While imaging studies play a crucial role in diagnosing this condition, the typical radiological findings are well-documented. However, this case report describes an unusual imaging presentation that deviates from the expected patterns, emphasizing the need for awareness of such variations. Case presentation: A 7-year-old female with no prior medical history was referred to our hospital with fever, seizure, and loss of Consciousness. She had mild flu a week before admission. The duration of seizure episodes were 2-3 min, with tonic-clonic uncontrollable jerky movements. Brudzinski and Kernig signs were positive and plantar reflex was upward bilaterally in the physical examination. The computed tomography (CT) scan showed brain ventriculomegaly/hydrocephalus, and MRI findings indicated multiple foci located at cerebellum, basal ganglia, and thalamus alongside intensely restricted diffusion of the layering debris, suggesting pyogenic ventriculitis. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis showed severe hypoglycorrhachia, despite non-significant increase of protein. The patient was undergone antibiotic therapy with ceftriaxone, vancomycin and rifampin, resulting in normalization of CSF values. Conclusion: This case report highlights the importance of recognizing and interpreting unusual imaging presentations of bacterial meningoencephalitis in paediatric patients. It emphasizes the need for a comprehensive diagnostic approach, including clinical evaluation, laboratory tests, and imaging studies, to ensure accurate diagnosis and appropriate management of this potentially life-threatening condition. Further research and awareness of atypical imaging findings are warranted to enhance our understanding and improve patient outcomes.

General Principles of Vaccination of Pediatric Candidates of Kidney Transplant in Iran.

Pediatric organ transplantation, specifically kidney transplant, has improved considerably in recent decades in Iran. Since infections are the most common cause of morbidity and mortality among transplanted children, pre-transplant vaccination is an effective preventive tool in this regard. In addition, administration of some vaccines is contraindicated in post- transplant period and the efficacy and immunogenicity of authorized vaccines may also be suboptimal in comparison to normal population. Therefore, pre-transplant period offers an outstanding chance to boost the immunization of this population. With regard to this population, it is imperative to establish a localized vaccination guideline, which can be used by nephrologists and other clinicians who are part of the transplant team, in Iran. Currently, such a local guideline for Iranian pediatric kidney transplant candidates is not available. The aim of this study is to provide a comprehensive overview of the existing vaccines recommended for these cases regarding the Expanded Program on Immunization (EPI) and available vaccines in Iran. In addition, general principles of vaccination, the use of specific vaccines as well as accelerated vaccination in this population are discussed in this article. This review could be a preliminary guide for preparing a comprehensive guideline for vaccination of this population in Iran.  DOI: 10.52547/ijkd.7660.

Etiology and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Pattern of Urinary Tract Infection in the First Year after Pediatric Renal Transplantation: A Preliminary Study.

Background: Urinary tract infection (UTI) is common after pediatric renal transplantation, and the emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria causing UTI is a therapeutic challenge in this regard. The main purpose of this study was to determine the UTI frequency, its etiologic agents, and the antibiotic susceptibility pattern in the first year following renal transplantation in Iranian pediatric recipients. Methods: In a retrospective cohort study, all of the 81 children who had undergone renal transplantation in Hazrat Rasoul Akram Hospital between 2012 and 2017 were enrolled. Confirmed episodes of UTI during the first year following renal transplantation were analyzed. The pattern of antibiotic resistance was determined for the causative agents of UTI. The data were analyzed using the IBM SPSS Statistics software (version 20). and the P < 0.05 was considered significant. Results: Totally, from 81 enrolled cases, 37(44.7%) cases were in the age group of 11-15 years. Overall, 19, 10, and 3 UTI episodes had occurred in the first month, from the first to sixth month, and between the sixth month and one year after transplantation, respectively. The four most common isolated bacteria were Escherichia coli (E. coli; 31.2%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa; 25%), Enterococci (21.9%) and Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumoniae; 12.5%). The highest rate of resistance was reported to trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (TMP/SMX), cephalosporins, and fluoroquinolones among gram-negative bacteria. However, none of the Enterococci isolates were resistant to linezolid and nitrofurantoin. Conclusion: Resistance to antibiotics is increasing among the pathogens causing UTI in pediatric renal transplanted cases. It is suggested to stop the administration of TMP/SMX and third-generation cephalosporins for empiric treatment of UTI in Iranian pediatric renal transplant recipients. Ciprofloxacin might be administered cautiously secondary to the increasing rate of antibiotic resistance in this group.

Prevalence and Clinical Relevance of cagA and oipA Genotypes of Helicobacter pylori in Children and Adults with Gastrointestinal Diseases in Tehran, Iran.

Background: Helicobacter pylori isa universal pathogen that causes gastric diseases and cancers in humans. In recent years, several virulence genes have been detected in this microorganism. Thus, we aimed to investigate the frequency of Helicobacterpylori strainswith cytotoxin-associated gene A(cagA) and outer membrane inflammatory protein A(oipA) genotypes among children and adult patients in Tehran, Iran, and evaluatetheir relation to themanifestations of different clinical symptoms. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, biopsy specimens were obtained from patients with gastrointestinal symptomsand evaluated for Helicobacter pylori infectionand its genotypes (cagA/oipA) througha polymerase chain reaction PCR assay. Clinical findings and demographic data of patients were documented and analyzed. Results: A total of 80 patients with Helicobacter pylori infectionwere included in the study (34 children and 46 adults). The cagA and oipA genotypes of Helicobacter pylori wereidentified in 22 (64.7%) and 24 (70.5%) children and in 31 (67.3%) and 34 (73.9%) adults, respectively. These differences were not statistically significant between the 2 studied groups. In addition, the frequency of cagA-positive strains of Helicobacterpylori wasfound more among patients with gastric ulcers rather than other clinical outcomes. Conclusion: Our findings demonstrate a highfrequency of Helicobacter pylori strains with oipA and cagA genotypes among children and adults in this region. Although we could not find a significant relationship between virulence genes and clinical outcomes in the patients, further studies are suggested to evaluate these factors in patients and assess their potential roles in the presence of antibiotic-resistant strains.

Amlodipine and Diltiazem Significantly Repress Human Rotavirus Infection In Vitro.

BACKGROUND: Considering the role of calcium in the replication and morphogenesis of rotaviruses, it is hypothesized that decreased cytosolic calcium levels by using calcium channel blockers can subsequently interfere with rotavirus replication. OBJECTIVE: The present study investigated the effects of two calcium ion channel blockers, amlodipine and diltiazem, against human rotavirus infection. METHODS: Cytotoxic effects of the drugs on MA-104 cells were evaluated using the neutral red assay. The effects of amlodipine and diltiazem at non-toxic concentrations on human rotavirus were examined using cytopathic effect inhibition, TCID50, and real-time PCR assays. RESULTS: The highest inhibitory effect was obtained at concentrations of 0.5 µg/ml of amlodipine and 3 µg/ml of diltiazem, leading to 4.6 and 5.5 logarithmic reductions in infectious rotavirus titer and four- and a five-fold increase in the Ct values compared to the virus control, respectively (p-value < 0.001). Conversely, infectious rotavirus titers were significantly elevated compared to the virus control at concentrations above 0.9 µg/ml of amlodipine and above 25 µg/ml of diltiazem. CONCLUSION: Our study suggests that in addition to cardiovascular diseases, calcium channel blockers at their optimal doses may also be used to treat gastroenteritis caused by rotavirus infection.

First Report of Nasal Myiasis Caused by Lucilia sericata in the Pediatric Age Group from Tehran, Iran.

Myiasis is an infestation caused by dipterous larvae. Nosocomial myiasis usually occurs in bedridden patients. Herein, we report a nasal myiasis in a 12-year-old female with cerebral palsy (CP) from Tehran, Iran and provide morphological identification of Lucilia sericata as the causative agent. The infection was identified 10 days after the hospital admission. It can be categorized as a nosocomial infection. As far as we are aware, this is the first report of nasal myiasis in the pediatric age group from Tehran, Iran.

Association of vitamin D and severity of COVID-19 in children.

Vitamin has a major role in the functions of the immune system, and the efficacy of this vitamin in reducing inflammation has been identified. Considering the effects of vitamin D, this study research was performed for investigating the relationship between vitamin D and the severity of COVID-19 in children. This cross-sectional study was performed on 101 children infected with the new coronavirus from September 2020 to October 2021. Information on vitamin D levels, demographic factors, and clinical and laboratory findings were documented in information forms and prepared for statistical analyses. The average of children was 2.85 ± 0.85 years. Low oxygen saturation was observed in 35.3% of infected children. The level of involvement was higher in subjects with vitamin D levels higher than 30 and less than 10 ng/ml (p = 0.04). Clinical signs in cases with deficient and sufficient vitamin D levels were more severe in terms of tachypnea and tachycardia (p = 0.01). Children with vitamin D lower than 10 ng/ml showed more frequency (p = 0.02). Cases with moderate vitamin D had fewer gastrointestinal complications (p = 0.03). Also, oxygen levels were lower in children who had low levels of vitamin D (p = 0.02). Vitamin D levels were associated with levels of involvement, tachycardia, tachypnea, clinical signs, gastrointestinal problems, and O2 levels. Moderate vitamin D levels in children are a critical issue that should be considered.

Tropheryma whipplei in the stool samples of children with acute diarrhea: a study from Tehran, Iran.

BACKGROUND: Recently, Tropheryma whipplei has been suggested as one of the causative agents of diarrhea among children worldwide. Limited data is available on the prevalence of T. whipplei among children with diarrhea in most countries such as Iran. This study was conducted to evaluate the prevalence of T. whipplei in children with acute diarrhea in Iran. METHODS: In this study, the stool samples were collected from 130 children under 10 years old with acute diarrhea from children's hospitals in Tehran city. Genomic DNA was extracted from stool samples and was tested for the presence of DNA of T. whipplei using the SYBR Green Real-time PCR method. Positive T. whipplei samples were finally confirmed by PCR Product sequencing. RESULTS: The mean age of participants was 32.5 months, and 54.6% of children were female. Using the SYBR Green Real-time PCR, 9.23% (12/130) of samples were positive for T. whipplei, which were confirmed by sequencing. 66.67% of positive cases were males. The duration of diarrhea in infected children with T. whipplei (83.3%) was significantly longer (OR: 5.93, 95% CI 1.24-28.22) compared to children with negative results (45.8%). Other demographic factors and clinical signs had not a statistically significant relationship with T. whipplei infection. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, T. whipplei was detected in stool samples of children with acute diarrhea. The results indicated that T. whipplei could be associated with childhood diarrhea in Iran. The health care system and physicians should be aware of the presence of T. whipplei infection in Iran, especially in childhood diarrhea.

Spontaneous pneumothorax and pneumomediastinum in patients with COVID-19: A case series from Iran.

Here, we report six cases of spontaneous pneumothorax and pneumomediastinitis in patients with COVID-19 in Iran, which were treated with different drugs such as hydroxychloroquine, sofosbuvir, atazanavir, and remdesivir as antiviral agents. Despite the differences in the type of drugs, pneumothorax occurred in all patients.

Alteration of miR-21, miR-433 and miR-590 tissue expression related to the TGF-ß signaling pathway in ulcerative colitis patients.

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is an inflammatory disease, and studies have suggested a role for TGF-ß signalling pathway in the pathogenesis of UC. In the present study, we evaluated expression of TGF-ß signalling genes and their regulatory microRNAs in patients with UC and control subjects. The expression of TGF-ß1, SMAD2, SMAD3, miR-21, miR-101, miR-433, and miR-590 were evaluated using real-time PCR in biopsy samples of the patients and controls. Results showed increased expression of TGF-ß1 and SMAD3 in the patients compared to controls. In addition, miR-21 and miR-433 were found to be higher in the patients compared to controls; however, miR-590 was found to be lower. Moreover, miR-433 was demonstrated to have positive correlation with SMAD3 and TGF-ß while miR-21 was positively correlated with TGF-ß1. MiR-590 was negatively correlated with SMAD2 and SMAD3. Results of the present study suggested a role for TGF-ß signalling pathway related microRNAs in pathogenesis of UC.

Global prevalence and genotype distribution of norovirus infection in children with gastroenteritis: A meta-analysis on 6 years of research from 2015 to 2020.

In the post rotavirus vaccine era, norovirus (NoV) plays an increasingly important role in epidemic and sporadic gastroenteritis among children. This study was designed to provide an updated meta-analytic review of the prevalence of NoV among paediatric patients with gastroenteritis and to clarify the relationship between NoV infection and gastroenteritis. Systematic searches of the literature for potentially relevant studies were carried out from 1 January 2015 to 29 May 2020. The inverse variance method was chosen for weighting of the studies, and the random-effects model was used to analyse data. To determine the association between NoV infection and gastroenteritis in children, pooled odds ratio (OR) and its 95% confidence interval (CI) were computed for case-control studies. The pooled prevalence of NoV infection among 12,0531 children with gastroenteritis from 45 countries across the world was 17.7% (95% CI: 16.3%-19.2%). There were 28 studies with a case-control design, and the pooled prevalence of NoV infection among 11,954 control subjects was 6.7% (95% CI: 5.1%-8.8%). The pooled OR of the association of NoV infection and gastroenteritis was 2.7 (95% CI: 2.2-3.4). The most common NoV genotypes were GII.4 (59.3%) and GII.3 (14.9%). The highest frequency of NoV was found in the age group below 1 year. Our findings indicated a substantial burden of gastroenteritis caused by NoV globally, with GII.4 and GII.3 the major genotypes responsible for the majority of NoV-associated gastroenteritis cases among children. Younger age and male sex can be considered risk factors for NoV-associated gastroenteritis among children.

A multicenter retrospective study of clinical features, laboratory characteristics, and outcomes of 166 hospitalized children with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): A preliminary report from Iranian Network for Research in Viral Diseases (INRVD).

BACKGROUND: The objectives of this study were to analyze the clinical features and laboratory profiles and risk factors associated with critical illness of children with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). METHODS: One hundred and sixty-six coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) Iranian pediatric patients were recruited through a collaborative research network between March and May 2020. Demographics, clinical, laboratory, and radiological results were obtained from patient files. RESULTS: Of 166 patients, 102 (61%) and 64 (39%) were males and females, respectively. Ninety-six (57.8%) and 70 (42.2%), had moderate and severe conditions, respectively. Thirty (18%) of patients died. The common symptoms were fever (73%), cough (54%), and shortness of breath, headache decrease in neutrophil and platelet counts; increase values in lactate dehydrogenase, decrease in the blood pH and HCO3 were significantly associated with the disease severity. 54% and 56% of patients showed abnormal radiographic appearance in Chest X-ray and in chest computed tomography scan, respectively. Sixty-one (36.7%) of patients were referred to intensive care unit (ICU). The coexistence of comorbidity was the main factor associated with ICU admission, shock, arrhythmia, acute kidney injury, acute respiratory distress syndrome, acute cardiac injury, and death. CONCLUSIONS: We describe a higher than previously recognized rate of COVID-19 mortality in Iranian pediatric patients. Epidemiological factors, such as the relatively high case fatality rate in the country and the presence of underlying diseases were the main factors for the high death rate.

First Report of an Association Between Crohn's Disease and Isolated Splenic Tuberculosis in Pediatric Population.

Isolated splenic tuberculosis (TB) in children is extremely rare, and congenital or acquired immunodeficiency is usually a predisposing factor for this disease. Herein, we report a case of isolated splenic TB in a 5.5-year-old child associated with Crohn's disease. As far as we are aware, this association is reported for the first time in children. Clinicians should be aware and consider extra pulmonary TB, especially in endemic regions. In addition, evaluation of an underlying disorder in unusual presentations of TB is advisable.

Molecular Characterization of Streptococcus Pneumoniae from Patients Diagnosed with Pneumonia: Recommendation for Vaccination Program.

Background: Infections caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae (S. pneumoniae) have remained a significant public health concern worldwide. In developed countries, the highest prevalence of S. pneumonia has been reported among the elderly. The aim of this study was to evaluate the coverage of genotypes in the 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV-13) in the Iranian elderly population. Methods: A total of 41 isolates of S. pneumoniae were collected in the current retrospective cross-sectional study. The samples comprised 33 inpatients hospitalized for pneumococcal pneumonia and 8 outpatients. Multiplex polymerase chain reaction assay was performed to categorize the bacteria isolated into specific genotypes. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS software, and the chi-square test was used to assess the statistical significance in percentages. Results: A total of 68 genotypes were identified in this study, in which 39 isolates (57.3%) were associated with invasive infections. The most common genotypes were 6A/B [8 (19.5%)], 1 [7 (17.5%)], 14 [5 (12.2%)], and 19A [4 (9.75%)], respectively. The coverage rates of PCV-7, PCV-10, and PCV-13 vaccines were 51.17%, 70.7%, and 99.9%, respectively. According to our results, the pneumococcal coverage rate of PCV-7, PCV-10, and PCV-13 vaccine types is estimated to be 51.2%, 70.7%, and 99.9%, respectively. Furthermore, the trend of pneumococcal serotypes included in the PCV-13 was steadily increasing during the study period. Conclusion: It can be concluded that the most circulating pneumococcal serotypes were in accordance with specific serotypes included in the PCV-13 vaccine types. Therefore, including PCV-13 vaccines in immunization programs against pneumococcus in the elderly can effectively reduce the rate of infections.

Prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis infection and evaluation of its genotypes among pregnant women in Tehran, Iran.

Background and Objectives: Chlamydia trachomatis is an obligate intracellular pathogen. Infection with C. trachomatis in pregnant women can result in maternal and fetal death, due to pelvic inflammatory disease. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate this infection in pregnant women and identify circulating genotypes of C. trachomatis in Tehran, Iran. Materials and Methods: Endocervical swabs were obtained from 101 pregnant women and tested by PCR assay to detect cryptic plasmid gene. Positive isolates were analyzed for C. trachomatis genotypes through amplification and sequencing of the omp1 gene and alignment with deposited sequences in Gene Bank. Results: Infection with C. trachomatis was observed in 11 cases, yielding an overall prevalence of 10.8% in total. The majority of infected women were asymptomatic and the rate of infection was found more in women at the age of ≥30 years. However, no statistical association was found between C. trachomatis infection and risk factors in pregnant women. Analysis of isolated sequences revealed genotypes E (44.4%), D and F (both 22.2%), and K (11.2%) as main genotypes of C. trachomatis in this region. Conclusion: Results of this study showed the prevalence of C. trachomatis infections among pregnant women is relatively high. Identifying the precise rate of infection and associated genotypes in other regions is suggested.

The effect of calcium on the duration of acute gastroenteritis in children: A randomized clinical trial.

Background: Currently, the role of calcium in reducing the duration and severity of diarrhea and its consequences has been considered as a topic of concern. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of oral calcium on the duration of acute gastroenteritis in children. Methods: This single-blind randomized clinical trial was performed from 2014 to 2016 at Ali Asghar Children's Hospital, Tehran, Iran. Totally, 124 patients (one month to twelve years old) with acute gastroenteritis were enrolled in this study. The patients were divided equally into intervention and placebo groups and received the calcium gluconate 10%, 0.5cc/kg/day and distinct water, respectively. Data analysis was performed using the statistical software SPSS version 20.0 for windows (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL) and p<0.05 was considered significant. Results: The mean age of the intervention and placebo groups was 26.43±3.74 and 20.84±2.70 months, respectively, and the difference was not significant (p=0.228). The duration of diarrhea in the intervention and placebo groups was 5.27±2.01 and 6.71 ± 2.44 days respectively (p=0.001). In the placebo group, the plasma calcium level was less than 8mg/dl in 1 (1.6%), 8 - 10 mg/dl in 55 (88.7%) and more than 10mg/dl in 6 cases (9. 7%). In the intervention group, there were 7 (11.3%), 55 (88.7%) and 0 (0%) cases in three groups, respectively (p=0.005). Conclusion: The oral calcium gluconate might shorten the duration of acute gastroenteritis. Therefore, it could be considered as an adjunctive therapy. Whether the formulation of the oral rehydration solution (ORS) will be updated in the future with adding the calcium salts remains to be defined and needs more investigations.

Is it time to administer acellular pertussis vaccine to childbearing age/pregnant women in all areas using whole-cell pertussis vaccination schedule?

BACKGROUND: Whole-cell pertussis (wP) vaccine administration is still advocated for children under 7 years of age in Iran. However, there is no recommendation for the administration of a dose of tetanus, diphtheria, and acellular pertussis (Tdap) vaccine to childbearing age/pregnant women in the Iranian vaccination program and it has increased the risk of infection through waning immunity during women's childbearing age life. The study aimed to assess the levels of anti-Bordetella pertussis antibodies in childbearing age women of different ages in Iran. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted on a total number of 360 childbearing age women divided into six age groups, with 5-year intervals from 15 to 45 years old, in 2018-2019. Then, the levels of immunoglobulin A (IgA), immunoglobulin M (IgM), and immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies against B. pertussis were evaluated using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The IBM SPSS Statistics software (version 16.0) (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) was used for data analysis. RESULTS: The mean age of the participants was 30.01 ± 8.35 years (range 14-45 years). All the cases were IgM negative, but two IgA-positive individuals (in the age groups of 14-19 and 30-34 years) were reported. Overall, 239 (66.4%) cases were IgG positive. The mean age of IgG-positive cases was 30.37 ± 8.37 years. The IgG-positive cases were mostly in the age groups of 30-34 and 35-39 years [43 (71.1%)]. The odds of IgG positivity were 1.97. The highest odds of IgG positivity were seen in 30-34 and 35-39 years groups (2.52) and the lowest odds were seen in the 20-24 and 25-29 years groups (1.60). Using the Jonckheere-Terpstra test, the increasing trend of IgG changes in different age groups was not statistically significant (Tπ=5.78, p = 0.09). CONCLUSION: The infants of women of childbearing age might be prone to pertussis in countries using the wP vaccination schedule. It is suggested to administer a dose of Tdap to women before or during pregnancy to increase the immunity of their infants against this disease during early infancy.

A Review on Molecular Mechanisms of Antifungal Resistance in Candida glabrata: Update and Recent Advances.

Candida glabrata is the second frequent etiologic agent of mucosal and invasive candidiasis. Based on the recent developments in molecular methods, C. glabrata has been introduced as a complex composed of C. glabrata, Candida nivariensis, and Candida bracarensis. The four main classes of antifungal drugs effective against C. glabrata are pyrimidine analogs (flucytosine), azoles, echinocandins, and polyenes. Although the use of antifungal drugs is related to the predictable development of drug resistance, it is not clear why C. glabrata is able to rapidly resist against multiple antifungals in clinics. The enhanced incidence and antifungal resistance of C. glabrata and the high mortality and morbidity need more investigation regarding the resistance mechanisms and virulence associated with C. glabrata; additional progress concerning the drug resistance of C. glabrata has to be further prevented. The present review highlights the mechanism of resistance to antifungal drugs in C. glabrata.