Investigating the influence of an effort-reward interaction on cognitive fatigue in individuals with multiple sclerosis.

This study examined whether an alteration in the effort-reward relationship, a theoretical framework based on cognitive neuroscience, could explain cognitive fatigue. Forty persons with MS and 40 healthy age- and education-matched cognitively healthy controls (HC) participated in a computerized switching task with orthogonal high- and low-demand (effort) and reward manipulations. We used the Visual Analog Scale of Fatigue (VAS-F) to assess subjective state fatigue before and after each condition during the task. We used mixed-effects models to estimate the association and interaction between effort and reward and their relationship to subjective fatigue and task performance. We found the high-demand condition was associated with increased VAS-F scores (p < .001), longer response times (RT) (p < .001) and lower accuracy (p < .001). The high-reward condition was associated with faster RT (p = .006) and higher accuracy (p = .03). There was no interaction effect between effort and reward on VAS-F scores or performance. Participants with MS reported higher VAS-F scores (p = .02). Across all conditions, participants with MS were slower (p < .001) and slower as a function of condition demand compared with HC (p < .001). This behavioural study did not find evidence that an effort-reward interaction is associated with cognitive fatigue. However, our findings support the role of effort in subjective cognitive fatigue and both effort and reward on task performance. In future studies, more salient reward manipulations could be necessary to identify effort-reward interactions on subjective cognitive fatigue.

The Relationship between Fatigue and a Clinically Accessible Measure of Switching in Individuals with Multiple Sclerosis.

OBJECTIVE: We examined whether fatigue in multiple sclerosis (MS) is linked to switching processes when switching is measured by the Trail Making Test (TMT). METHOD: Eighty-three participants with MS were administered a battery of standardized tests of switching, working memory, and processing speed. Ordinary least squares regression models were used to estimate the association between fatigue severity and switching above and beyond attention, working memory, and processing speed. RESULTS: We found a negative association between TMT performance and fatigue severity score. When measures of processing speed and working memory were included in the model, the switching measure continued to uniquely contribute to fatigue severity. CONCLUSIONS: There may be a unique relationship between fatigue and switching processes identifiable by clinical measures of switching. Future research should continue to investigate this relationship by using both behavioral and neural markers to test models of fatigue to eventually identify specific intervention targets.

Quality of Life and Depressive Symptomatology in Multiple Sclerosis: A Cross-Sectional Study Between the USA and Spain.

BACKGROUND: For multinational clinical trials in multiple sclerosis (MS), identifying cross-country differences on quality of life (QoL) is important for understanding patients' response variability. No study has compared QoL between Spanish and American MS samples. This study aims to: 1) compare QoL and depressive symptomatology between Spanish and American patients, and against normative data; 2) compare the interrelationship between such constructs between countries; and 3) compare sociodemographic and clinical predictors on these outcomes. METHOD: 114 participants with MS were included and matched for gender, disability and education. The SF-36 Health Survey and BDI-FastScreen (BDI-FS) were the outcomes. ANCOVA, partial-correlations and multiple regression analyses were compared between countries. RESULTS: Spaniards reported worse depressive symptomatology and QoL, and clinically significant impairment in all QoL dimensions, while Americans showed clinically significant impairment only in physical domains. Among Spaniards, more Bodily pain was more related to worse Social functioning and Vitality, and worse Vitality was more related to worse Social functioning than among Americans. From the regression models, Physical functioning predicted BDI-FS greater among Americans. Conversely, disability and Role-emotional predicted BDI-FS and Mental health, respectively, significantly stronger in Spain. CONCLUSIONS: Spaniards show worse QoL and depressive symptomatology and greater clinically significant impairment than the Americans.

Executive function "drives" differences in simulated driving performance between young adults with and without autism spectrum disorder.

Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) may experience greater difficulty learning to drive than peers who do not have ASD, but reasons for those differences are unclear. This study examined how diagnostic symptoms of ASD and commonly co-morbid executive dysfunction relate to differences in simulated driving performance between young, inexperienced drivers with and without ASD. Participants included 98 young adults, ages 16-26 years, half of which were diagnosed with ASD. Participants with ASD completed the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS-2) and self- and parent-report versions of the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS-2) to confirm diagnosis and assess the severity of ASD symptoms. All participants completed neuropsychological tests measuring executive functioning. Driving behaviors, including speed and lane positioning, were assessed on a virtual reality driving simulator. Analyses were conducted to first examine relationships between autism severity and driving behaviors, and then to examine whether neurocognitive performance mediated differences in driving behaviors between young adults with and without ASD. Controlling for age, gender, and licensure status, ASD symptom severity was not significantly related to driving. Neurocognitive variables were grouped into three factors: Speed of Information Processing, Auditory Attention and Working Memory, and Selective and Divided Attention. Speed of Information Processing significantly mediated group driving differences. Results suggest that assessment of executive functions such as processing speed may be more useful than the diagnostic assessment of ASD symptoms for evaluation of driving readiness.

The Relationship Between Multiple Sclerosis Symptom Severity Measures and Performance on Driving Variability Metrics in a Virtual Reality Simulator.

OBJECTIVE: Driving ability can be compromised in individuals with multiple sclerosis (MS); however, the progressive nature of multiple sclerosis makes it difficult for clinicians to assess when performance on functional tasks, such as driving, has started to decline. The aim of the study was to evaluate the relationship between two measures of multiple sclerosis severity, the Expanded Disability Status Scale and the Multiple Sclerosis Functional Composite, and minor driving errors in a virtual reality driving simulator. DESIGN: Symptom severity was measured in 31 active drivers with multiple sclerosis using the Expanded Disability Status Scale and Multiple Sclerosis Functional Composite. Driving performance was measured using a standardized virtual reality driving simulator route. Executive functioning, a cognitive function commonly related to driving, was evaluated using the Trail Making Test B. RESULTS: Greater impairment on the Multiple Sclerosis Functional Composite was related to increased difficulty maintaining lane positioning (r = -0.49, P = 0.01) and poorer executive functioning (r = -0.52, P < 0.01). In contrast, the Expanded Disability Status Scale was not related to either measure. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that poorer performance on the Multiple Sclerosis Functional Composite, and not the Expanded Disability Status Scale, may indicate vulnerability to minor driving errors as an early sign of driving compromise. The use of screening tools, such as the Multiple Sclerosis Functional Composite, could help clinicians identify increased driving risk and consider comprehensive driving evaluations earlier, before a major driving violation or accident occurs. TO CLAIM CME CREDITS: Complete the self-assessment activity and evaluation online at http://www.physiatry.org/JournalCME CME OBJECTIVES: Upon completion of this article, the reader should be able to: (1) Describe the relationship between symptom severity and driving performance in a virtual reality driving simulator, and how the relationship may vary based on which symptom severity measure is used; (2) Identify nuanced differences between two commonly used multiple sclerosis (MS) symptom severity measures when assessing functional abilities such as driving; and (3) Utilize symptom severity screeners that can assist in monitoring symptom progression and assessing whether further driving evaluation is needed. LEVEL: Advanced. ACCREDITATION: The Association of Academic Physiatrists is accredited by the Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education to provide continuing medical education for physicians.The Association of Academic Physiatrists designates this Journal-based CME activity for a maximum of 1.0 AMA PRA Category 1 Credit(s)™. Physicians should only claim credit commensurate with the extent of their participation in the activity.

An examination of financial capacity and neuropsychological performance in chronic acquired brain injury (CABI).

PRIMARY OBJECTIVE: Financial Capacity (FC) is known to be impaired in the acute and subacute stages of brain injury. The current study sought to examine FC in the context of chronic, moderate to severe acquired brain injury (CABI). RESEARCH DESIGN: The Financial Competence Assessment Inventory (FCAI), developed in Australia, was adapted to examine the integrity of FC in an American sample. METHODS AND PROCEDURES: Healthy comparison (HC) participants were recruited from the community, whereas participants with CABI were recruited from a community-based rehabilitation center. Participants completed the FCAI and a neuropsychological battery. FCAI performance in the current study was compared against previously published Australian data. Multiple regression analyses examined group (CABI vs. HC) as a predictor of FC. Bivariate correlations examined the cognitive correlates of FCAI in the CABI group. MAIN OUTCOMES AND RESULTS: The HC group in the current study obtained similar mean scores as those in the Australian sample. CABI group membership predicted lower performance on each FCAI dimension. In the CABI group, attention, working memory, delayed verbal memory, abstract reasoning and impulsivity were uniquely associated with FCAI dimensions. CONCLUSIONS: Findings underscore the importance of continued monitoring of FC even after the subacute stage of injury, and identify cognitive impairments that may be particularly detrimental for specific dimensions of FC.

Selective reminding of prospective memory in Multiple Sclerosis.

OBJECTIVE: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is associated with prospective memory (PM) deficits, which may increase the risk of poor functional/health outcomes such as medication non-adherence. This study examined the potential benefits of selective reminding to enhance PM functioning in persons with MS. METHOD: Twenty-one participants with MS and 22 healthy adults (HA) underwent a neuropsychological battery including a Selective Reminding PM (SRPM) experimental procedure. Participants were randomly assigned to either: (1) a selective reminding condition in which participants learn (to criterion) eight prospective memory tasks in a Selective Reminding format; or (2) a single trial encoding condition (1T). RESULTS: A significant interaction was demonstrated, with MS participants receiving greater benefit than HAs from the SR procedure in terms of PM performance. Across diagnostic groups, participants in the SR conditions (vs. 1T conditions) demonstrated significantly better PM performance. Individuals with MS were impaired relative to HAs in the 1T condition, but performance was statistically comparable in the SR condition. CONCLUSIONS: This preliminary study suggests that selective reminding can be used to enhance PM cue detection and retrieval in MS. The extent to which selective reminding of PM is effective in naturalistic settings and for health-related behaviours in MS remains to be determined.

Driving Comparisons Between Young Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Typical Development.

OBJECTIVE: Many individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are reluctant to pursue driving because of concerns about their ability to drive safely. This study aimed to assess differences in simulated driving performance in young adults with ASD and typical development, examining relationships between driving performance and the level of experience (none, driver's permit, licensed) across increasingly difficult driving environments. METHOD: Participants included 50 English-speaking young adults (16-26 years old) with ASD matched for sex, age, and licensure with 50 typically-developing (TD) peers. Participants completed a structured driving assessment using a virtual-reality simulator that included increasingly complex environmental demands. Differences in mean speed and speed and lane variability by diagnostic group and driving experience were analyzed using multilevel linear modeling. RESULTS: Young adults with ASD demonstrated increased variability in speed and lane positioning compared with controls, even during low demand tasks. When driving demands became more complex, group differences were moderated by driving experience such that licensed drivers with ASD drove similarly to TD licensed drivers for most tasks, whereas unlicensed drivers with ASD had more difficulty with speed and lane management than TD drivers. CONCLUSION: Findings suggest that young adults with ASD may have more difficulty with basic driving skills than peers, particularly in the early stages of driver training. Increased difficulty compared with peers increases as driving demands become more complex, suggesting that individuals with ASD may benefit from a slow and gradual approach to driver training. Future studies should evaluate predictors of driving performance, on-road driving, and ASD-specific driving interventions.

Driving after brain injury: Does dual-task modality matter?

BACKGROUND: Virtual reality technology allows neuropsychologists to examine complex, real-world behaviors with high ecological validity and can provide an understanding of the impact of demanding dual-tasks on driving performance. OBJECTIVE: We hypothesized that a task imposing high cognitive and physical demands (coin-sorting) would result in the greatest reduction in driving maintenance performance. METHODS: Twenty participants with acquired brain injury and 28 healthy controls were included in the current study. All participants were licensed and drove regularly. Participants completed two standardized VRDS drives: (1) a baseline drive with no distractions, and (2) the same route with three, counterbalanced dual-tasks representing differing demands. RESULTS: A series of 3 (Task)×2 (Group) ANOVAs revealed that the ABI group tended to go slower than the HC group in the presence of a dual-task, F (1, 111) = 6.24, p = 0.01. Importantly, the ABI group also showed greater variability in speed, F (1, 110) = 10.97, p < 0.01, and lane position, F (1, 108) = 7.81, p < 0.01, an effect driven by dual-tasks with both a cognitive and motor demand. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that long-term driving difficulties following ABI are subtle and likely due to reduced cognitive resources.

Driving-Related Coping Thoughts in Post-9/11 Combat Veterans With and Without Comorbid PTSD and TBI.

Veterans with a history of PTSD, TBI, and combat driving may experience driving anxiety on their return home and may benefit from using targeted coping strategies.

Neurocognitive Correlates of Young Drivers' Performance in a Driving Simulator.

PURPOSE: Differences in neurocognitive functioning may contribute to driving performance among young drivers. However, few studies have examined this relation. This pilot study investigated whether common neurocognitive measures were associated with driving performance among young drivers in a driving simulator. METHODS: Young drivers (19.8 years (standard deviation [SD] = 1.9; N = 74)) participated in a battery of neurocognitive assessments measuring general intellectual capacity (Full-Scale Intelligence Quotient, FSIQ) and executive functioning, including the Stroop Color-Word Test (cognitive inhibition), Wisconsin Card Sort Test-64 (cognitive flexibility), and Attention Network Task (alerting, orienting, and executive attention). Participants then drove in a simulated vehicle under two conditions-a baseline and driving challenge. During the driving challenge, participants completed a verbal working memory task to increase demand on executive attention. Multiple regression models were used to evaluate the relations between the neurocognitive measures and driving performance under the two conditions. RESULTS: FSIQ, cognitive inhibition, and alerting were associated with better driving performance at baseline. FSIQ and cognitive inhibition were also associated with better driving performance during the verbal challenge. Measures of cognitive flexibility, orienting, and conflict executive control were not associated with driving performance under either condition. CONCLUSIONS: FSIQ and, to some extent, measures of executive function are associated with driving performance in a driving simulator. Further research is needed to determine if executive function is associated with more advanced driving performance under conditions that demand greater cognitive load.

Preliminary findings of a novel measure of driving behaviors in Veterans with comorbid TBI and PTSD.

Veterans of the military operations in Iraq and Afghanistan are at an elevated risk of driving-related accidents and fatalities compared with civilians. Combat exposure, military driving training, risk-seeking, traumatic brain injury (TBI), and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are all factors associated with driving-related risk. However, few empirical studies have observed driving patterns in this population, and the influence of these contributing factors remains unclear. This study utilized a novel self-report measure to assess driving behaviors, subjective driving-related anxiety, and the emotional experiences of military Veterans who have returned to civilian driving. This questionnaire was completed by 23 combat Veterans diagnosed with comorbid TBI and PTSD and 10 nondisabled combat Veterans. Drivers with TBI and PTSD reported more frequent high-risk driving behaviors and higher levels of anxiety while driving in certain situations than nondisabled combat Veterans. These preliminary findings highlight the importance of studying on-the-road situations and cues that produce anxiety in Veterans, particularly those with TBI and PTSD. A greater understanding of driving-related anxiety is needed to inform targeted and effective interventions for unsafe driving in Veterans.

The Effects of Driver Distraction for Individuals With Traumatic Brain Injuries.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of secondary tasks on the driving performance of individuals with mild traumatic brain injuries (TBIs). BACKGROUND: Studies suggest detrimental impacts of driving with TBI or while distracted but the impact of driver distraction on TBI drivers is not well documented. METHOD: Bayesian regression models were used to estimate the effect of relatively simple secondary tasks on driving performance of TBI and healthy control (HC) drivers. A driving simulator was used to develop prior distribution of task effects on driving performance for HCs. An on-road study was conducted with TBI and HC drivers to generate effect estimates for the posterior distributions. The Bayesian models were also compared to frequentist models. RESULTS: During a coin-sorting task, all drivers exhibited larger maximum lateral acceleration and larger standard deviation of speed than in a baseline driving segment. There were no significant driving performance differences between the TBI and the HC drivers during the tasks. Across all tasks, TBI drivers spent more time looking at the tasks and made more frequent glances toward the tasks. CONCLUSIONS: The findings show that even drivers with mild TBI have significantly longer and more glances toward the tasks compared to the HCs. APPLICATION: This study demonstrates a Bayesian approach and how the results differ from frequentist statistics. Using prior distributions in a Bayesian model helps account for the probabilities associated with otherwise unknown parameters. This method strengthens the Bayesian parameter estimates compared to that of a frequentist model.

Electrographic status epilepticus and neurobehavioral outcomes in critically ill children.

PURPOSE: Electrographic seizures (ESs) and electrographic status epilepticus (ESE) are common in children with acute neurologic conditions in pediatric intensive care units (PICUs), and ESE is associated with worse functional and quality-of-life outcomes. As an exploratory study, we aimed to determine if ESE was associated with worse outcomes using more detailed neurobehavioral measures. METHODS: Three hundred children with an acute neurologic condition and altered mental status underwent clinically indicated EEG monitoring and were enrolled in a prospective observational study. We obtained follow-up data from subjects who were neurodevelopmentally normal prior to PICU admission. We evaluated for associations between ESE and adaptive behavior (Adaptive Behavior Assessment System-II, ABAS-II), behavioral and emotional problems (Child Behavior Checklist, CBCL), and executive function (Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, BRIEF) using linear regression analyses. A p-value of <0.05 was considered significant. RESULTS: One hundred thirty-seven of 300 subjects were neurodevelopmentally normal prior to PICU admission. We obtained follow-up data from 36 subjects for the CBCL, 32 subjects for the ABAS-II, and 20 subjects for the BRIEF. The median duration from admission to follow-up was 2.6 years (IQR: 1.2-3.8). There were no differences in the acute care variables (age, sex, mental status category, intubation status, paralysis status, acute neurologic diagnosis category, seizure category, EEG background category, or short-term outcome) between subjects with and without follow-up data for any of the outcome measures. On univariate analysis, significant differences were not identified for CBCL total problem (ES coefficient: -4.1, p = 0.48; ESE coefficient: 8.9, p = 0.13) or BRIEF global executive function (ES coefficient: 2.1, p = 0.78; ESE coefficient: 14.1, p = 0.06) scores, although there were trends toward worse scores in subjects with ESE. On univariate analysis, ESs were not associated with worse scores (coefficient: -21.5, p = 0.051), while ESE (coefficient: -29.7, p = 0.013) was associated with worse ABAS-II adaptive behavioral global composite scores. On multivariate analysis, when compared to subjects with no seizures, both ESs (coefficient: -28, p=0.014) and ESE (coefficient: -36, p = 0.003) were associated with worse adaptive behavioral global composite scores. DISCUSSION: Among previously neurodevelopmentally normal children with acute neurologic disorders, ESs and ESE were associated with worse adaptive behavior and trends toward worse behavioral-emotional and executive function problems. This was a small exploratory study, and the impact of ESs and ESE on these neurobehavioral measures may be clarified by subsequent larger studies. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled "Status Epilepticus".

Driving after traumatic brain injury: evaluation and rehabilitation interventions.

The ability to return to driving is a common goal for individuals who have sustained a traumatic brain injury. However, specific and empirically validated guidelines for clinicians who make the return-to-drive decision are sparse. In this article, we attempt to integrate previous findings on driving after brain injury and detail the cognitive, motor, and sensory factors necessary for safe driving that may be affected by brain injury. Various forms of evaluation (both in clinic and behind-the-wheel) are discussed, as well as driver retraining and modifications that may be necessary.

Behavioural ratings of self-regulatory mechanisms and driving behaviour after an acquired brain injury.

OBJECTIVE: To explore whether measurements of self-regulatory mechanisms and cognition predict driving behaviour after an acquired brain injury (ABI). DESIGN: Consecutive follow-up study. PARTICIPANTS: At baseline participants included 77 persons with stroke and 32 persons with a traumatic brain injury (TBI), all of whom completed a multidisciplinary driving assessment (MDA). A follow-up cohort of 34 persons that succeeded the MDA was included. Baseline measurements: Neuropsychological tests and measurements of self-regulatory mechanisms (BRIEF-A and UPPS Impulsive Behaviour Scale), driving behaviour (DBQ) and pre-injury driving characteristics (mileage, compensatory driving strategies and accident rates). Follow-up measurements: Post-injury driving characteristics were collected by mailed questionnaires from the participants who succeeded the MDA. METHODS: A MDA, which included a medical examination, neuropsychological testing and an on-road driving test, was considered in the decision for or against granting a driver's license. Self-regulatory mechanisms and driving behaviour were examined for research purposes only. RESULTS: At baseline, self-regulatory mechanisms were significantly associated to aberrant driving behaviour, but not with neuropsychological data or with the outcome of the on-road driving test. Aspects of self-regulation were associated to driving behaviour at follow-up. CONCLUSION: It is recommended that self-regulatory measurements should regularly be considered in the driving assessments after ABI.

Effect of the teen driving plan on the driving performance of teenagers before licensure: a randomized clinical trial.

IMPORTANCE: Many studies have failed to show an effect of parent-supervised practice driving on the driving performance of teenagers; nevertheless, most Graduated Driver Licensing programs have provisions that require supervised practice. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether a web-based intervention, the Teen Driving Plan (TDP), can improve the driving performance of teenagers before licensure as measured by the Teen On-road Driving Assessment (tODA). DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Randomized, single-blind, clinical trial among 217 dyads (1 parent: 1 teenaged learner's-permit holder) to test TDP effectiveness on increasing the quantity and diversity of supervised practice and improving the teenagers' prelicensed driving performance. The study was conducted from December 2011 through January 2013 in Southeastern Pennsylvania. INTERVENTIONS: Dyads were randomized (3:2) to receive the TDP or the Pennsylvania driver's manual (control group). The TDP is a psychoeducational intervention designed to increase the quantity and diversity of parent-supervised practice. Materials are grouped by the following driving environments: empty parking lots, suburban residential streets, intermediate (1- or 2-lane) roads, highways, rural roads with curves and elevation changes, and commercial districts. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: The main outcomes were self-reported practice driving across 6 environments and 2 conditions and driving performance as measured by the teenagers' completion of the standardized and validated tODA 24 weeks after enrollment. Certified professional driving evaluators blinded to randomization status terminated the tODA if they determined that the teenager could not safely complete it. We examined mean differences in the quantity of supervised practice, differences in the overall proportion of teenagers in each group that had assessments terminated for unsafe driving, and the point of termination during the assessment. RESULTS: The TDP dyads reported more practice in 5 of the 6 environments and at night and in bad weather compared with the control dyads. Overall, 5 of 86 TDP teenagers (6%) had the tODA terminated compared with 10 of 65 control teenagers (15%) (risk difference [TDP - control], -9% [95% CI, -21% to 2%]; P = .06). The hazard ratio for exposure to TDP was 0.35 (95% CI, 0.12-1.03; P = .05, log-rank test). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Preliminary evidence suggests that the TDP improves supervised practice and the driving performance of prelicensed teenaged drivers. Future studies can explore how to revise the TDP to enhance the treatment effect and how best to disseminate the TDP without compromising implementation fidelity. TRIAL REGISTRATION: clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT01498575.

Driving behaviors in adults with autism spectrum disorders.

This pilot study investigated driving history and driving behaviors between adults diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) as compared to non-ASD adult drivers. Seventy-eight licensed drivers with ASD and 94 non-ASD comparison participants completed the Driver Behavior Questionnaire. Drivers with ASD endorsed significantly lower ratings of their ability to drive, and higher numbers of traffic accidents and citations relative to non-ASD drivers. Drivers with ASD also endorsed significantly greater numbers of difficulties on the following subscales: intentional violations, F(1, 162) = 6.15, p = .01, η p (2)  = .04; mistakes, F(1, 162) = 10.15, p = .002, η p (2)  = .06; and slips/lapses, F(1, 162) = 11.33, p = .001, η p (2)  = .07. These findings suggest that individuals with ASD who are current drivers may experience more difficulties in driving behaviors and engage in more problematic driving behaviors relative to non-ASD drivers.

Electrographic status epilepticus and long-term outcome in critically ill children.

OBJECTIVE: Electrographic seizures (ES) and electrographic status epilepticus (ESE) are common in children in the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) with acute neurologic conditions. We aimed to determine whether ES or ESE was associated with worse long-term outcomes. METHODS: Three hundred children with an acute neurologic condition and encephalopathy underwent clinically indicated EEG monitoring and were enrolled in a prospective observational study. We aimed to obtain follow-up data from 137 subjects who were neurodevelopmentally normal before PICU admission. RESULTS: Follow-up data were collected for 60 of 137 subjects (44%) at a median of 2.7 years. Subjects with and without follow-up data were similar in clinical characteristics during the PICU admission. Among subjects with follow-up data, ES occurred in 12 subjects (20%) and ESE occurred in 14 subjects (23%). Multivariable analysis indicated that ESE was associated with an increased risk of unfavorable Glasgow Outcome Scale (Extended Pediatric Version) category (odds ratio 6.36, p = 0.01) and lower Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory scores (23 points lower, p = 0.001). Among subjects without prior epilepsy diagnoses ESE was associated with an increased risk of subsequently diagnosed epilepsy (odds ratio 13.3, p = 0.002). ES were not associated with worse outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Among children with acute neurologic disorders who were reported to be neurodevelopmentally normal before PICU admission, ESE but not ES was associated with an increased risk of unfavorable global outcome, lower health-related quality of life scores, and an increased risk of subsequently diagnosed epilepsy even after adjusting for neurologic disorder category, EEG background category, and age.

Verbal working memory impairments following traumatic brain injury: an fNIRS investigation.

The construct of working memory and its reliance on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) have been the focus of many studies in healthy subjects and in clinical populations. However, transfer of knowledge gained from cognitive science studies to clinical applications can be a challenging goal. This scarce cross-dissemination may be partially due to the use of 'tools' that are limited in their ability to generate meaningful information about impairments in clinical groups. To this end, this paper investigates the use of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), which offers unique opportunities for recording neuroactivation. Specifically, we examine measures of the DLPFC hemodynamic response during a working memory task in adults with traumatic brain injury (TBI) and healthy controls. Analysis of hemodynamic measures showed significant differences between the two groups, even without differences in behavioral performance. Additional subtle disparities were linked to levels of performance in TBI and healthy subjects. fNIRS hemodynamic measures may therefore provide novel information to existing theories and knowledge of the working memory construct. Future studies may further define these subtle differences captured by fNIRS to help identify which components affect inter-individual variations in performance and could play a contributing role in the choice and planning of neurorehabilitation interventions targeting working memory.