A maize semidwarf mutant reveals a GRAS transcription factor involved in brassinosteroid signaling.

Brassinosteroids (BR) and gibberellins (GA) regulate plant height and leaf angle in maize (Zea mays). Mutants with defects in BR or GA biosynthesis or signaling identify components of these pathways and enhance our knowledge about plant growth and development. In this study, we characterized three recessive mutant alleles of GRAS transcription factor 42 (gras42) in maize, a GRAS transcription factor gene orthologous to the DWARF AND LOW TILLERING (DLT) gene of rice (Oryza sativa). These maize mutants exhibited semi-dwarf stature, shorter and wider leaves, and more upright leaf angle. Transcriptome analysis revealed a role for GRAS42 as a determinant of BR signaling. Analysis of the expression consequences from loss of GRAS42 in the gras42-mu1021149 mutant indicated a weak loss of BR signaling in the mutant, consistent with its previously demonstrated role in BR signaling in rice. Loss of BR signaling was also evident by the enhancement of weak BR biosynthetic mutant alleles in double mutants of nana plant1-1 and gras42-mu1021149. The gras42-mu1021149 mutant had little effect on GA-regulated gene expression, suggesting that GRAS42 is not a regulator of core GA signaling genes in maize. Single cell expression data identified gras42 expressed among cells in the G2/M phase of the cell cycle consistent with its previously demonstrated role in cell cycle gene expression in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). Cis-acting natural variation controlling GRAS42 transcript accumulation was identified by expression genome-wide association study (eGWAS) in maize. Our results demonstrate a conserved role for GRAS42/SCARECROW-LIKE 28 (SCL28)/DLT in BR signaling, clarify the role of this gene in GA signaling, and suggest mechanisms of tillering and leaf angle control by BR.

Mutation of the nuclear pore complex component, aladin1, disrupts asymmetric cell division in Zea mays (maize).

The nuclear pore complex (NPC) regulates the movement of macromolecules between the nucleus and cytoplasm. Dysfunction of many components of the NPC results in human genetic diseases, including triple A syndrome (AAAS) as a result of mutations in ALADIN. Here, we report a nonsense mutation in the maize ortholog, aladin1 (ali1-1), at the orthologous amino acid residue of an AAAS allele from humans, alters plant stature, tassel architecture, and asymmetric divisions of subsidiary mother cells (SMCs). Crosses with the stronger nonsense allele ali1-2 identified complex allele interactions for plant height and aberrant SMC division. RNA-seq analysis of the ali1-1 mutant identified compensatory transcript accumulation for other NPC components as well as gene expression consequences consistent with conservation of ALADIN1 functions between humans and maize. These findings demonstrate that ALADIN1 is necessary for normal plant development, shoot architecture, and asymmetric cell division in maize.

Molecular Insights into the Physical Adsorption of Amphiphilic Protein PhaF onto Copolyester Surfaces.

Phasins are amphiphilic proteins located at the polymer-cytoplasm interface of bacterial polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA). The immobilization of phasins on biomaterial surfaces is a promising way to enhance the hydrophilicity and supply cell-directing elements in bioinstructing processes. Optimizing the physical adsorption of phasins requires deep insights into molecular processes during polymer-protein interactions to preserve their structural conformation while optimizing surface coverage. Here, the assembly, organization, and stability of phasin PhaF from Pseudomonas putida at interfaces is disclosed. The Langmuir technique, combined with in situ microscopy and spectroscopic methods, revealed that PhaF forms stable and robust monolayers at different temperatures, with an almost flat orientation of its α-helix at the air-water interface. PhaF adsorption onto preformed monolayers of poly[(3-R-hydroxyoctanoate)-co-(3-R-hydroxyhexanoate)] (PHOHHx), yields stable mixed layers below π = ∼15.7 mN/m. Further insertion induces a molecular reorganization. PHOHHx with strong surface hydrophobicity is a more adequate substrate for PhaF adsorption than the less hydrophobic poly[(rac-lactide)-co-glycolide] (PLGA). The observed orientation of the main axis of the protein in relation to copolyester interfaces ensures the best exposure of the hydrophobic residues, providing a suitable coating strategy for polymer functionalization.

Reversible 2D networks of oligo(ε-caprolactone) at the air-water interface.

Hydroxyl terminated oligo(ε-caprolactone) (OCL) monolayers were reversibly cross-linked forming two dimensional networks (2D) at the air-water interface. The equilibrium reaction with glyoxal as the cross-linker is pH-sensitive. Pronounced contraction in the area of the prepared 2D OCL films in dependence of surface pressure and time revealed the process of the reaction. Cross-linking inhibited crystallization and retarded enzymatic degradation of the OCL film. Altering the subphase pH led to a cleavage of the covalent acetal cross-links. The reversibility of the covalent acetal cross-links was proved by observing an identical isotherm as non-cross-linked sample. Besides as model systems, these customizable reversible OCL 2D networks are intended for use as pH responsive drug delivery systems or functionalized cell culture substrates.

Langmuir Monolayers as Tools to Study Biodegradable Polymer Implant Materials.

Langmuir monolayers provide a fast and elegant route to analyze the degradation behavior of biodegradable polymer materials. In contrast to bulk materials, diffusive transport of reactants and reaction products in the (partially degraded) material can be neglected at the air-water interface, allowing for the study of molecular degradation kinetics in experiments taking less than a day and in some cases just a few minutes, in contrast to experiments with bulk materials that can take years. Several aspects of the biodegradation behavior of polymer materials, such as the interaction with biomolecules and degradation products, are directly observable. Expanding the technique with surface-sensitive instrumental techniques enables evaluating the evolution of the morphology, chemical composition, and the mechanical properties of the degrading material in situ. The potential of the Langmuir monolayer degradation technique as a predictive tool for implant degradation when combined with computational methods is outlined, and related open questions and strategies to overcome these challenges are pointed out.

Collagen type-IV Langmuir and Langmuir-Schäfer layers as model biointerfaces to direct stem cell adhesion.

In biomaterial development, the design of material surfaces that mimic the extra-cellular matrix (ECM) in order to achieve favorable cellular instruction is rather challenging. Collagen-type IV (Col-IV), the major scaffolding component of Basement Membranes (BM), a specialized ECM with multiple biological functions, has the propensity to form networks by self-assembly and supports adhesion of cells such as endothelial cells or stem cells. The preparation of biomimetic Col-IV network-like layers to direct cell responses is difficult. We hypothesize that the morphology of the layer, and especially the density of the available adhesion sites, regulates the cellular adhesion to the layer. The Langmuir monolayer technique allows for preparation of thin layers with precisely controlled packing density at the air-water (A-W) interface. Transferring these layers onto cell culture substrates using the Langmuir-Schäfer (LS) technique should therefore provide a pathway for preparation of BM mimicking layers with controlled cell adherence properties. In situ characterization using ellipsometry and polarization modulation-infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy of Col-IV layer during compression at the A-W interface reveal that there is linear increase of surface molecule concentration with negligible orientational changes up to a surface pressure of 25 mN m-1. Smooth and homogeneous Col-IV network-like layers are successfully transferred by LS method at 15 mN m-1 onto poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), which is a common substrate for cell culture. In contrast, the organization of Col-IV on PET prepared by the traditionally employed solution deposition method results in rather inhomogeneous layers with the appearance of aggregates and multilayers. Progressive increase in the number of early adherent mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) after 24 h by controlling the areal Col-IV density by LS transfer at 10, 15 and 20 mN m-1 on PET is shown. The LS method offers the possibility to control protein characteristics on biomaterial surfaces such as molecular density and thereby, modulate cell responses.

Enhancement of human induced pluripotent stem cells adhesion through multilayer laminin coating.

Bioengineered cell substrates are a highly promising tool to govern the differentiation of stem cells in vitro and to modulate the cellular behavior in vivo. While this technology works fine for adult stem cells, the cultivation of human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) is challenging as these cells typically show poor attachment on the bioengineered substrates, which among other effects causes substantial cell death. Thus, very limited types of surfaces have been demonstrated suitable for hiPSC cultures. The multilayer coating approach that renders the surface with diverse chemical compositions, architectures, and functions can be used to improve the adhesion of hiPSCs on the bioengineered substrates. We hypothesized that a multilayer formation based on the attraction of molecules with opposite charges could functionalize the polystyrene (PS) substrates to improve the adhesion of hiPSCs. Polymeric substrates were stepwise coated, first with dopamine to form a polydopamine (PDA) layer, second with polylysine and last with Laminin-521. The multilayer formation resulted in the variation of hydrophilicity and chemical functionality of the surfaces. Hydrophilicity was detected using captive bubble method and the amount of primary and secondary amines on the surface was quantified by fluorescent staining. The PDA layer effectively immobilized the upper layers and thereby improved the attachment of hiPSCs. Cell adhesion was enhanced on the surfaces coated with multilayers, as compared to those without PDA and/or polylysine. Moreover, hiPSCs spread well over this multilayer laminin substrate. These cells maintained their proliferation capacity and differentiation potential. The multilayer coating strategy is a promising attempt for engineering polymer-based substrates for the cultivation of hiPSCs and of interest for expanding the application scope of hiPSCs.

Glyphosate resistance in Ambrosia trifida: Part 1. Novel rapid cell death response to glyphosate.

BACKGROUND: Glyphosate-resistant (GR) Ambrosia trifida is now present in the midwestern United States and in southwestern Ontario, Canada. Two distinct GR phenotypes are known, including a rapid response (GR RR) phenotype, which exhibits cell death within hours after treatment, and a non-rapid response (GR NRR) phenotype. The mechanisms of resistance in both GR RR and GR NRR remain unknown. Here, we present a description of the RR phenotype and an investigation of target-site mechanisms on multiple A. trifida accessions. RESULTS: Glyphosate resistance was confirmed in several accessions, and whole-plant levels of resistance ranged from 2.3- to 7.5-fold compared with glyphosate-susceptible (GS) accessions. The two GR phenotypes displayed similar levels of resistance, despite having dramatically different phenotypic responses to glyphosate. Glyphosate resistance was not associated with mutations in EPSPS sequence, increased EPSPS copy number, EPSPS quantity, or EPSPS activity. CONCLUSION: These encompassing results suggest that resistance to glyphosate in these GR RR A. trifida accessions is not conferred by a target-site resistance mechanism. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Glyphosate resistance in Ambrosia trifida: Part 2. Rapid response physiology and non-target-site resistance.

BACKGROUND: The glyphosate-resistant rapid response (GR RR) resistance mechanism in Ambrosia trifida is not due to target-site resistance (TSR) mechanisms. This study explores the physiology of the rapid response and the possibility of reduced translocation and vacuolar sequestration as non-target-site resistance (NTSR) mechanisms. RESULTS: GR RR leaf discs accumulated hydrogen peroxide within minutes of glyphosate exposure, but only in mature leaf tissue. The rapid response required energy either as light or exogenous sucrose. The combination of phenylalanine and tyrosine inhibited the rapid response in a dose-dependent manner. Reduced glyphosate translocation was observed in GR RR, but only when associated with tissue death caused by the rapid response. Nuclear magnetic resonance studies indicated that glyphosate enters the cytoplasm and reaches chloroplasts, and it is not moved into the vacuole of GR RR, GR non-rapid response or glyphosate-susceptible A. trifida. CONCLUSION: The GR RR mechanism of resistance is not associated with vacuole sequestration of glyphosate, and the observed reduced translocation is likely a consequence of rapid tissue death. Rapid cell death was inhibited by exogenous application of aromatic amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine. The mechanism by which these amino acids inhibit rapid cell death in the GR RR phenotype remains unknown, and it could involve glyphosate phytotoxicity or other agents generating reactive oxygen species. Implications of these findings are discussed. The GR RR mechanism is distinct from the currently described glyphosate TSR or NTSR mechanisms in other species. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Single molecule Raman spectroscopic assay to detect transgene from GM plants.

Substantial concerns have been raised for the safety of transgenics on human health and environment. Many organizations, consumer groups, and environmental agencies advocate for stringent regulations to avoid transgene products' contamination in food cycle or in nature. Here we demonstrate a novel approach using surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) to detect and quantify transgene from GM plants. We show a highly sensitive and accurate quantification of transgene DNA from multiple transgenic lines of Arabidopsis. The assay allows us to detect and quantify the transgenes as low as 0.10 pg without need for PCR-amplification. This technology is relatively cheap, quick, simple, and suitable for detection at low target concentration.

Evaluating polymeric biomaterial-environment interfaces by Langmuir monolayer techniques.

Polymeric biomaterials are of specific relevance in medical and pharmaceutical applications due to their wide range of tailorable properties and functionalities. The knowledge about interactions of biomaterials with their biological environment is of crucial importance for developing highly sophisticated medical devices. To achieve optimal in vivo performance, a description at the molecular level is required to gain better understanding about the surface of synthetic materials for tailoring their properties. This is still challenging and requires the comprehensive characterization of morphological structures, polymer chain arrangements and degradation behaviour. The review discusses selected aspects for evaluating polymeric biomaterial-environment interfaces by Langmuir monolayer methods as powerful techniques for studying interfacial properties, such as morphological and degradation processes. The combination of spectroscopic, microscopic and scattering methods with the Langmuir techniques adapted to polymers can substantially improve the understanding of their in vivo behaviour.

Multiplex single-cell quantification of rare RNA transcripts from protoplasts in a model plant system.

Here we demonstrate multiplex and simultaneous detection of four different rare RNA species from plant, Arabidopsis thaliana, using surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) and gold nanoprobes at single-cell resolution. We show the applicability of nanoparticle-based Raman spectroscopic sensor to study intracellular RNA copies. First, we demonstrate that gold-nanoparticles decorated with Raman probes and carrying specific nucleic acid probe sequences can be uptaken by the protoplasts. We confirm the internalization of gold nanoprobes by transmission electron microscopy, inductively-coupled plasma-mass spectrometry and fluorescence imaging. Second, we show the utility of a SERS platform to monitor individual alternatively spliced (AS) variants and miRNA copies within single cells. Finally, the distinctive spectral features of Raman-active dyes were exploited for multiplex analysis of AtPTB2, AtDCL2, miR156a and miR172a. Furthermore, single-cell studies were validated by in vitro quantification and evaluation of nanotoxicity of gold probes. Raman tag functionalized gold nanosensors yielded an approach for the tracking of rare RNAs within the protoplasts. The SERS-based approach for quantification of RNAs has the capability to be a highly sensitive, accurate and discerning method for single-cell studies including AS variants quantification and rare miRNA detection in specific plant species.

An ellipsometric approach towards the description of inhomogeneous polymer-based Langmuir layers.

The applicability of nulling-based ellipsometric mapping as a complementary method next to Brewster angle microscopy (BAM) and imaging ellipsometry (IE) is presented for the characterization of ultrathin films at the air-water interface. First, the methodology is demonstrated for a vertically nonmoving Langmuir layer of star-shaped, 4-arm poly(ω-pentadecalactone) (PPDL-D4). Using nulling-based ellipsometric mapping, PPDL-D4-based inhomogeneously structured morphologies with a vertical dimension in the lower nm range could be mapped. In addition to the identification of these structures, the differentiation between a monolayer and bare water was possible. Second, the potential and limitations of this method were verified by applying it to more versatile Langmuir layers of telechelic poly[(rac-lactide)-co-glycolide]-diol (PLGA). All ellipsometric maps were converted into thickness maps by introduction of the refractive index that was derived from independent ellipsometric experiments, and the result was additionally evaluated in terms of the root mean square roughness, Rq. Thereby, a three-dimensional view into the layers was enabled and morphological inhomogeneity could be quantified.

Enzymatic Degradation of Oligo(ε-caprolactone)s End-Capped with Phenylboronic Acid Derivatives at the Air-Water Interface.

The influence of terminal functionalization of oligo(ε-caprolactone)s (OCL) with phenylboronic acid pinacol ester or phenylboronic acid on the enzymatic degradation behavior at the air-water interface is investigated by the Langmuir monolayer degradation technique. While the unsubstituted OCL immediately degrades after injection of the enzyme lipase from Pseudomonas cepacia, enzyme molecules are incorporated into the films based on end-capped OCL before degradation. This incorporation of enzymes does not inhibit or suppress the film degradation, but retards it significantly. A specific binding of lipase to the polymer monolayer allows studying the enzymatic activity of bound proteins and the influence on the degradation process. The functionalization of a macromolecule with phenyl boronic acid groups is an approach to investigate their interactions with diol-containing biomolecules like sugars and to monitor their specified impact on the enzymatic degradation behavior at the air-water interface.

nana plant2 Encodes a Maize Ortholog of the Arabidopsis Brassinosteroid Biosynthesis Gene DWARF1, Identifying Developmental Interactions between Brassinosteroids and Gibberellins.

A small number of phytohormones dictate the pattern of plant form affecting fitness via reproductive architecture and the plant's ability to forage for light, water, and nutrients. Individual phytohormone contributions to plant architecture have been studied extensively, often following a single component of plant architecture, such as plant height or branching. Both brassinosteroid (BR) and gibberellin (GA) affect plant height, branching, and sexual organ development in maize (Zea mays). We identified the molecular basis of the nana plant2 (na2) phenotype as a loss-of-function mutation in one of the two maize paralogs of the Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) BR biosynthetic gene DWARF1 (DWF1). These mutants accumulate the DWF1 substrate 24-methylenecholesterol and exhibit decreased levels of downstream BR metabolites. We utilized this mutant and known GA biosynthetic mutants to investigate the genetic interactions between BR and GA. Double mutants exhibited additivity for some phenotypes and epistasis for others with no unifying pattern, indicating that BR and GA interact to affect development but in a context-dependent manner. Similar results were observed in double mutant analyses using additional BR and GA biosynthetic mutant loci. Thus, the BR and GA interactions were neither locus nor allele specific. Exogenous application of GA3 to na2 and d5, a GA biosynthetic mutant, also resulted in a diverse pattern of growth responses, including BR-dependent GA responses. These findings demonstrate that BR and GA do not interact via a single inclusive pathway in maize but rather suggest that differential signal transduction and downstream responses are affected dependent upon the developmental context.

Towards a novel bioelectrocatalytic platform based on "wiring" of pyrroloquinoline quinone-dependent glucose dehydrogenase with an electrospun conductive polymeric fiber architecture.

Electrospinning is known as a fabrication technique for electrode architectures that serve as immobilization matrices for biomolecules. The current work demonstrates a novel approach to construct a conductive polymeric platform, capable not only of immobilization, but also of electrical connection of the biomolecule with the electrode. It is produced upon electrospinning from mixtures of three different highly conductive sulfonated polyanilines and polyacrylonitrile on ITO electrodes. The resulting fiber mats are with a well-retained conductivity. After coupling the enzyme pyrroloquinoline quinone-dependent glucose dehydrogenase (PQQ-GDH) to polymeric structures and addition of the substrate glucose an efficient bioelectrocatalysis is demonstrated. Depending on the choice of the sulfonated polyanilline mediatorless bioelectrocatalysis starts at low potentials; no large overpotential is needed to drive the reaction. Thus, the electrospun conductive immobilization matrix acts here as a transducing element, representing a promising strategy to use 3D polymeric scaffolds as wiring agents for active enzymes. In addition, the mild and well reproducible fabrication process and the active role of the polymer film in withdrawing electrons from the reduced PQQ-GDH lead to a system with high stability. This could provide access to a larger group of enzymes for bioelectrochemical applications including biosensors and biofuel cells.

Influence of Diurethane Linkers on the Langmuir Layer Behavior of Oligo[(rac-lactide)-co-glycolide]-based Polyesterurethanes.

Three oligo[(rac-lactide)-co-glycolide] based polyesterurethanes (OLGA-PUs) containing different diurethane linkers are investigated by the Langmuir monolayer technique and compared to poly[(rac-lactide)-co-glycolide] (PLGA) to elucidate the influence of the diurethane junction units on hydrophilicity and packing motifs of these polymers at the air-water interface. The presence of diurethane linkers does not manifest itself in the Langmuir layer behavior both in compression and expansion experiments when monomolecular films of OLGA-PUs are spread on the water surface. However, the linker retard the evolution of morphological structures at intermediate compression level under isobaric conditions (with a surface pressure greater than 11 mN m-1 ) compared to the PLGA, independent on the chemical structure of the diurethane moiety. The layer thicknesses of both OLGA-PU and PLGA films decrease in the high compression state with decreasing surface pressure, as deduced from ellipsometric data. All films must be described with the effective medium approximation as water swollen layers.

Soilless plant growth media influence the efficacy of phytohormones and phytohormone inhibitors.

Plant growth regulators, such as hormones and their respective biosynthesis inhibitors, are effective tools to elucidate the physiological function of phytohormones in plants. A problem of chemical treatments, however, is the potential for interaction of the active compound with the growth media substrate. We studied the interaction and efficacy of propiconazole, a potent and specific inhibitor of brassinosteroid biosynthesis, with common soilless greenhouse growth media for rice, sorghum, and maize. Many of the tested growth media interacted with propiconazole reducing its efficacy up to a hundred fold. To determine the molecular interaction of inhibitors with media substrates, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy and sorption isotherm analysis was applied. While mica clay substrates absorbed up to 1.3 mg of propiconazole per g substrate, calcined clays bound up to 12 mg of propiconazole per g substrate. The efficacy of the gibberellic acid biosynthesis inhibitor, uniconazole, and the most active brassinosteroid, brassinolide, was impacted similarly by the respective substrates. Conversely, gibberellic acid showed no distinct growth response in different media. Our results suggest that the reduction in efficacy of propiconazole, uniconazole, and brassinolide in bioassays when grown in calcined clay is caused by hydrophobic interactions between the plant growth regulators and the growth media. This was further confirmed by experiments using methanol-water solvent mixes with higher hydrophobicity values, which reduce the interaction of propiconazole and calcined clay.