Contributors to Organ Damage in Childhood Lupus: Corticosteroid Use and Disease Activity.

BACKGROUND: Awareness of paediatric-specific predictors of damage in Childhood-lupus is needed to inform mitigation measures. OBJECTIVES: To ascertain how clinical and demographic variables correlate with damage accrual and identify predictors of damage. METHODS: Analysis included UK JSLE Cohort Study participants. Univariable and multivariable Prentice-Williams-Peterson models investigated how demographic and clinical factors influenced hazards of new damage. Analyses were performed across the entire cohort, in patients with minimal disease activity marked by a time-adjusted average SLEDAI-2K score (AMS)≤2, low activity (AMS ≤ 4), moderate-high activity (AMS > 4) and those with no corticosteroids. RESULTS: Within the entire cohort (n = 430), factors associated with damage included: any methylprednisolone (Hazard Ratio, HR 2.20, [CI 1.33-3.62]), time-adjusted mean Physicians Global Assessment (PGA) (HR 2.87, [CI 1.48-5.56]) and AMS score (HR 1.13, [CI 1.03-1.24], all p< 0.05). Within the low activity subgroup, any methylprednisolone (HR 2.61, [CI 1.04-6.53]) and time-adjusted mean PGA (HR 3.41, [CI 1.52-7.76]) were associated with damage (both p< 0.05). Within the moderate-high activity subgroup, any methylprednisolone (HR 2.29, [CI 1.31-4.00]), time-adjusted mean PGA (HR 2.66, [CI 1.20-5.87]) and AMS score (HR 1.15, [CI 1.03-1.29]), were predictive of damage (all p< 0.05). Baseline organ damage was predictive of subsequent damage accrual in the minimal activity (HR 1.33, CI [1.78-8.08]) and no corticosteroids subgroups (HR 3.64, CI [1.83-7.24], both p< 0.005). CONCLUSION: Disease activity levels (AMS/PGA) and proxy indicators (methylprednisolone exposure, baseline damage) were found to be key predictors of damage accrual. This highlights the importance of practical strategies, to reduce disease activity and long-term treatment toxicity, such as treat-to-target.

Cytokine Storm Syndrome Associated with Hemorrhagic Fever and Other Viruses.

A wide variety of infections can trigger cytokine storm syndromes including those caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites. The most frequent viral trigger is Epstein-.Barr virus which is covered in Chapter 16. CSS associated with COVID-19 is also discussed separately (Chapter 22). This chapter will focus on other viruses including the hemorrhagic fever viruses, influenza, parainfluenza, adenovirus, parvovirus, hepatitis viruses, measles, mumps, rubella, enterovirus, parechovirus, rotavirus, human metapneumovirus and human T-lymphotropic virus. The published literature consists of many single case reports and moderate-sized case series reporting CSS, in most circumstances meeting the 2004 diagnostic criteria for hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH). There is no published clinical trial evidence specifically for management of HLH associated with these viruses. In some situations, patients received supportive therapy and blood product transfusions only but in most cases, they were treated with one or more of intravenous corticosteroids, intravenous immunoglobulin and/or etoposide. These were successful in many patients although in significant numbers progression of infection to CSS was associated with mortality.

Diagnosis and investigation of suspected haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in adults: 2023 Hyperinflammation and HLH Across Speciality Collaboration (HiHASC) consensus guideline.

Haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a hyperinflammatory syndrome characterised by persistently activated cytotoxic lymphocytes and macrophages, which, if untreated, leads to multiorgan dysfunction and death. HLH should be considered in any acutely unwell patient not responding to treatment as expected, with prompt assessment to look for what we term the three Fs-fever, falling blood counts, and raised ferritin. Worldwide, awareness of HLH and access to expert management remain inequitable. Terminology is not standardised, classification criteria are validated in specific patient groups only, and some guidelines rely on specialised and somewhat inaccessible tests. The consensus guideline described in this Health Policy was produced by a self-nominated working group from the UK network Hyperinflammation and HLH Across Speciality Collaboration (HiHASC), a multidisciplinary group of clinicians experienced in managing people with HLH. Combining literature review and experience gained from looking after patients with HLH, it provides a practical, structured approach for all health-care teams managing adult (>16 years) patients with possible HLH. The focus is on early recognition and diagnosis of HLH and parallel identification of the underlying cause. To ensure wide applicability, the use of inexpensive, readily available tests is prioritised, but the role of specialist investigations and their interpretation is also addressed.

Real world treatment of juvenile-onset systemic lupus erythematosus: Data from the UK JSLE cohort study.

BACKGROUND: In the absence of clinical trials evidence, Juvenile-onset Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (JSLE) treatment plans vary. AIM: To explore 'real world' treatment utilising longitudinal UK JSLE Cohort Study data. METHODS: Data collected between 07/2009-05/2020 was used to explore the choice/sequence of immunomodulating drugs from diagnosis. Multivariate logistic regression determined how organ-domain involvement (pBILAG-2004) impacted treatment choice. RESULT: 349 patients met inclusion criteria, median follow-up 4-years (IQR:2,6). Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) was most commonly used for the majority of organ-domains, and significantly associated with renal involvement (OR:1.99, 95% CI:1.65-2.41, pc < 0.01). Analyses assessing the sequence of immunomodulators focused on 197/349 patients (meeting relevant inclusion/exclusion criteria). 10/197 (5%) solely recieved hydroxychloroquine/prednisolone, 62/197 (31%) received a single-immunomodulator, 69/197 (36%) received two, and 36/197 patients (28%) received ≥three immunomodulators. The most common first and second line immunomodulator was MMF. Rituximab was the most common third-line immunomodulator. CONCLUSIONS: Most UK JSLE patients required ≥two immunomodulators, with MMF used most commonly.

Attainment of low disease activity and remission targets reduces the risk of severe flare and new damage in childhood lupus.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the achievability and effect of attaining low disease activity (LDA) or remission in childhood-onset SLE (cSLE). METHODS: Attainment of three adult-SLE derived definitions of LDA (LLDAS, LA, Toronto-LDA), and four definitions of remission (clinical-SLEDAI-defined remission on/off treatment, pBILAG-defined remission on/off treatment) was assessed in UK JSLE Cohort Study patients longitudinally. Prentice-Williams-Petersen gap recurrent event models assessed the impact of LDA/remission attainment on severe flare/new damage. RESULTS: LLDAS, LA and Toronto-LDA targets were reached in 67%, 73% and 32% of patients, after a median of 18, 15 or 17 months, respectively. Cumulatively, LLDAS, LA and Toronto-LDA was attained for a median of 23%, 31% and 19% of total follow-up-time, respectively. Remission on-treatment was more common (61% cSLEDAI-defined, 42% pBILAG-defined) than remission off-treatment (31% cSLEDAI-defined, 21% pBILAG-defined). Attainment of all target states, and disease duration (>1 year), significantly reduced the hazard of severe flare (P < 0.001). As cumulative time in each target increased, hazard of severe flare progressively reduced. LLDAS attainment reduced the hazard of severe flare more than LA or Toronto-LDA (P < 0.001). Attainment of LLDAS and all remission definitions led to a statistically comparable reduction in the hazards of severe flare (P > 0.05). Attainment of all targets reduced the hazards of new damage (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study demonstrating that adult-SLE-derived definitions of LDA/remission are achievable in cSLE, significantly reducing risk of severe flare/new damage. Of the LDA definitions, LLDAS performed best, leading to a statistically comparable reduction in the hazards of severe flare to attainment of clinical remission.

A validation study of the identification of haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in England using population-based health data.

We assessed the validity of coded healthcare data to identify cases of haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH). Hospital Episode Statistics (HES) identified 127 cases within five hospital Trusts 2013-2018 using ICD-10 codes D76.1, D76.2 and D76.3. Hospital records were reviewed to validate diagnoses. Out of 74 patients, 73 were coded D76.1 or D76.2 (positive predictive value 89·0% [95% Confidence Interval {CI} 80·2-94·9%]) with confirmed/probable HLH. For cases considered not HLH, 44/53 were coded D76.3 (negative predictive value 97·8% [95% CI 88·2-99·9%]). D76.1 or D76.2 had 68% sensitivity in detecting HLH compared to an established active case-finding HLH register in Sheffield. Office for National Statistics (ONS) mortality data (2003-2018) identified 698 patients coded D76.1, D76.2 and D76.3 on death certificates. Five hundred and forty-one were coded D76.1 or D76.2 of whom 524 (96·9%) had HLH in the free-text cause of death. Of 157 coded D76.3, 66 (42·0%) had HLH in free text. D76.1 and D76.2 codes reliably identify HLH cases, and provide a lower bound on incidence. Non-concordance between D76.3 and HLH excludes D76.3 as an ascertainment source from HES. Our results suggest electronic healthcare data in England can enable population-wide registration and analysis of HLH for future research.

Macrophage Activation Syndrome in Children: Diagnosis and Management.

Macrophage activation syndrome is a severe yet under-recognized complication encountered in pediatric rheumatology. It manifests as secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis leading to a hyper-inflammatory state resulting from an underlying cytokine storm. If unchecked, it may lead to multiorgan failure and mortality. Early diagnosis and timely initiation of specific therapy is pivotal for a successful outcome. This review outlines the key clinical and laboratory features and management of macrophage activation syndrome.

Limited sensitivity and specificity of the ACR/EULAR-2019 classification criteria for SLE in JSLE?-observations from the UK JSLE Cohort Study.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to test the performance of the new ACR and EULAR criteria, that include ANA positivity as entry criterion, in JSLE. METHODS: Performance of the ACR/EULAR-2019 criteria were compared with Systemic Lupus International Collaborating Clinics (SLICC-2012), using data from children and young people (CYP) in the UK JSLE Cohort Study (n = 482), with the ACR-1997 criteria used as reference standard. An unselected cohort of CYP positive for ANA (n = 129) was used to calculate positive/negative predictive values of the criteria. RESULTS: At both first and last visits, the number of patients fulfilling the different classification criteria varied significantly (P < 0.001). The sensitivity of the SLICC-2012 criteria was higher when compared with that of the ACR/EULAR-2019 criteria at first and last visits (98% vs 94% for first visit, and 98% vs 96% for last visit; P < 0.001), when all available CYP were considered. The ACR/EULAR-2019 criteria were more specific when compared with the SLICC-2012 criteria (77% vs 67% for first visit, and 81% vs 71% for last visit; P < 0.001). Significant differences between the classification criteria were mainly caused by the variation in ANA positivity across ages. In the unselected cohort of ANA-positive CYP, the ACR/EULAR-2019 criteria produced the highest false-positive classification (6/129, 5%). CONCLUSION: In CYP, the ACR/EULAR-2019 criteria are not superior to those of the SLICC-2012 or ACR-1997 criteria. If classification criteria are designed to include CYP and adult populations, paediatric rheumatologists should be included in the consensus and evaluation process, as seemingly minor changes can significantly affect outcomes.

Advancing the treatment of juvenile idiopathic arthritis.

Treatment for juvenile idiopathic arthritis has undergone substantial changes in recent decades. These changes are partly due to the availability of new treatments, mainly biological agents, as well as developments in treatment strategies, including a focus on concepts such as treat-to-target. In addition, the creation of large paediatric research networks has improved patient access to, and design of, clinical trials for rare paediatric diseases. Although these advances have resulted in improvements in care for most patients with juvenile idiopathic arthritis, certain subgroups of patients continue to have a poor prognosis. Further research aims to identify patients in these subgroups early, to personalise their care, improve functional outcomes, and minimise long-term damage and harm. Optimising the duration of therapy for those individuals who require systemic immunosuppression is also of importance. Incorporation of novel biomarkers in combination with validated clinical measures in an effort to predict outcomes and target therapy accordingly is an exciting development.

Update on noninfectious uveitis in children and its treatment.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: To give an overview of recently published articles covering risk factors, novel biomarkers and treatment for noninfectious uveitis in children. RECENT FINDINGS: In the last few years, several genetic markers, serum biomarkers, aqueous humor markers, tear biomarkers and clinical factors have been identified, which are associated with childhood noninfectious uveitis. We describe the most important reports in this field that may help to tailor the screening and monitoring of this population in the future and might become the target of novel therapies. The advances in the biologic therapy of paediatric uveitis, thanks to evidence provided by the SYCAMORE, ADJUVITE and APTITUDE trials, offer new possibilities for the treatment of patients who fail methotrexate with adalimumab and tocilizumab. We discuss the importance of comprehensive outcome measures as proposed by the Multinational Interdisciplinary Working Group for Uveitis in Childhood (MIWGUC). SUMMARY: Paediatric noninfectious uveitis is a sight-threatening condition and the identification of risk factors and novel biomarkers is critical for tailored management. Biologic therapies are revolutionizing the outcomes of patients resistant to conventional therapy. Increasing our knowledge of disease pathogenesis is crucial to improve targeting of screening to those at highest risk and stratification of treatments.

Response to First Course of Intensified Immunosuppression in Genetically Stratified Steroid Resistant Nephrotic Syndrome.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Intensified immunosuppression in steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome is broadly applied, with disparate outcomes. This review of patients from the United Kingdom National Study of Nephrotic Syndrome cohort aimed to improve disease stratification by determining, in comprehensively genetically screened patients with steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome, if there is an association between response to initial intensified immunosuppression and disease progression and/or post-transplant recurrence. DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, & MEASUREMENTS: Pediatric patients with steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome were recruited via the UK National Registry of Rare Kidney Diseases. All patients were whole-genome sequenced, whole-exome sequenced, or steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome gene-panel sequenced. Complete response or partial response within 6 months of starting intensified immunosuppression was ascertained using laboratory data. Response to intensified immunosuppression and outcomes were analyzed according to genetic testing results, pattern of steroid resistance, and first biopsy findings. RESULTS: Of 271 patients, 178 (92 males, median onset age 4.7 years) received intensified immunosuppression with response available. A total of 4% of patients with monogenic disease showed complete response, compared with 25% of genetic-testing-negative patients (P=0.02). None of the former recurred post-transplantation. In genetic-testing-negative patients, 97% with complete response to first intensified immunosuppression did not progress, whereas 44% of nonresponders developed kidney failure with 73% recurrence post-transplant. Secondary steroid resistance had a higher complete response rate than primary/presumed resistance (43% versus 23%; P=0.001). The highest complete response rate in secondary steroid resistance was to rituximab (64%). Biopsy results showed no correlation with intensified immunosuppression response or outcome. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with monogenic steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome had a poor therapeutic response and no post-transplant recurrence. In genetic-testing-negative patients, there was an association between response to first intensified immunosuppression and long-term outcome. Patients with complete response rarely progressed to kidney failure, whereas nonresponders had poor kidney survival and a high post-transplant recurrence rate. Patients with secondary steroid resistance were more likely to respond, particularly to rituximab.

Juvenile idiopathic arthritis-associated uveitis.

Juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) is the commonest rheumatic disease in children and JIA-associated uveitis its most frequent extra-articular manifestation. The uveitis is potentially sight-threatening and so carries a considerable risk of morbidity. The commonest form of uveitis seen in JIA is chronic anterior uveitis which is almost always asymptomatic in the initial stages. Therefore, screening for JIA-associated uveitis in at-risk patients is essential. The aim of early detection and treatment is to minimise intra-ocular inflammation and avoid complications leading to visual loss, resulting from both disease activity and medications. There is increasing evidence for the early introduction of systemic immunosuppressive therapies in order to reduce topical and systemic glucocorticoid use. Two randomised controlled trials of adalimumab in JIA-associated uveitis provide convincing evidence for the use of this biologic in patients who fail to respond adequately to methotrexate. Tocilizumab and baricitinib are being investigated as alternatives to anti-tumour necrosis factor drugs.

Chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis in children and adults: current understanding and areas for development.

Since the first descriptions of chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis in the 1970s, there have been numerous case reports in the literature; both unusual case reports and case series from all over the world. Our understanding of the pathogenesis has significantly changed, with it now being regarded as an autoinflammatory condition. Treatment options have also expanded, but little progress has been made in developing the evidence for treatments. Advancing gene studies have provided a mouse model, but the quest for a single gene to match the phenotype has been elusive. Early cohorts of patients have grown up into adults, allowing prospective data to inform the expected outcomes.

Clinical genetic testing using a custom-designed steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome gene panel: analysis and recommendations.

BACKGROUND: There are many single-gene causes of steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome (SRNS) and the list continues to grow rapidly. Prompt comprehensive diagnostic testing is key to realising the clinical benefits of a genetic diagnosis. This report describes a bespoke-designed, targeted next-generation sequencing (NGS) diagnostic gene panel assay to detect variants in 37 genes including the ability to identify copy number variants (CNVs). METHODS: This study reports results of 302 patients referred for SRNS diagnostic gene panel analysis. Phenotype and clinical impact data were collected using a standard proforma. Candidate variants detected by NGS were confirmed by Sanger sequencing/Multiplex Ligation-dependent Probe Amplification with subsequent family segregation analysis where possible. RESULTS: Clinical presentation was nephrotic syndrome in 267 patients and suspected Alport syndrome (AS) in 35. NGS panel testing determined a likely genetic cause of disease in 44/220 (20.0%) paediatric and 10/47 (21.3%) adult nephrotic cases, and 17/35 (48.6%) of haematuria/AS patients. Of 71 patients with genetic disease, 32 had novel pathogenic variants without a previous disease association including two with deletions of one or more exons of NPHS1 or NPHS2. CONCLUSION: Gene panel testing provides a genetic diagnosis in a significant number of patients presenting with SRNS or suspected AS. It should be undertaken at an early stage of the care pathway and include the ability to detect CNVs as an emerging mechanism for genes associated with this condition. Use of clinical genetic testing after diagnosis of SRNS has the potential to stratify patients and assist decision-making regarding management.

Cross sectional, qualitative thematic analysis of patient perspectives of disease impact in juvenile idiopathic arthritis-associated uveitis.

BACKGROUND: Chronic health conditions in children can have a significant impact on their quality of life. The aim of this study was to explore the subjective experience of children and young people being treated for chronic, non-infectious uveitis associated with a systemic disease such as juvenile idiopathic arthritis. METHODS: A semi-structured interview was conducted with 10 children and young people aged between 6 and 18 years of age and their parents. RESULTS: Preliminary thematic analysis indicated that both the treatment and complications of the disorder have a significant impact on the quality of life and emotional well-being of patients, not only in terms of the discomfort experienced but also in perceptions of social isolation, anxiety and sense of injustice. CONCLUSION: This study shows that themes including "impact on school", "social factors" and "emotional reactions" are important domains influencing health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in children with chronic uveitis. Inclusion of questions relating to these domains should be considered in future uveitis-specific tools examining HRQoL in these patients.

Genomic and clinical profiling of a national nephrotic syndrome cohort advocates a precision medicine approach to disease management.

Steroid Resistant Nephrotic Syndrome (SRNS) in children and young adults has differing etiologies with monogenic disease accounting for 2.9-30% in selected series. Using whole exome sequencing we sought to stratify a national population of children with SRNS into monogenic and non-monogenic forms, and further define those groups by detailed phenotypic analysis. Pediatric patients with SRNS were identified via a national United Kingdom Renal Registry. Whole exome sequencing was performed on 187 patients, of which 12% have a positive family history with a focus on the 53 genes currently known to be associated with nephrotic syndrome. Genetic findings were correlated with individual case disease characteristics. Disease causing variants were detected in 26.2% of patients. Most often this occurred in the three most common SRNS-associated genes: NPHS1, NPHS2, and WT1 but also in 14 other genes. The genotype did not always correlate with expected phenotype since mutations in OCRL, COL4A3, and DGKE associated with specific syndromes were detected in patients with isolated renal disease. Analysis by primary/presumed compared with secondary steroid resistance found 30.8% monogenic disease in primary compared with none in secondary SRNS permitting further mechanistic stratification. Genetic SRNS progressed faster to end stage renal failure, with no documented disease recurrence post-transplantation within this cohort. Primary steroid resistance in which no gene mutation was identified had a 47.8% risk of recurrence. In this unbiased pediatric population, whole exome sequencing allowed screening of all current candidate genes. Thus, deep phenotyping combined with whole exome sequencing is an effective tool for early identification of SRNS etiology, yielding an evidence-based algorithm for clinical management.

Diagnosing haemophagocytic syndrome.

Haemophagocytic syndrome, or haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH), is a hyperinflammatory disorder characterised by uncontrolled activation of the immune system. It can result from mutations in multiple genes involved in cytotoxicity or occur secondary to a range of infections, malignancies or autoimmune rheumatic diseases. In the latter case, it is also known as macrophage activation syndrome (MAS). Characteristic features are persistent fever, hepatosplenomegaly, petechial/purpuric rash, progressive cytopenias, coagulopathy, transaminitis, raised C reactive protein, falling erythrocyte sedimentation rate, hypertriglyceridaemia, hypofibrinogenaemia and extreme hyperferritinaemia often associated with multi-organ impairment. Distinguishing HLH from systemic sepsis can present a major challenge. Criteria for diagnosis and classification of HLH and MAS are available and a serum ferritin >10 000 µg/L is strongly supportive of HLH. Without early recognition and appropriate treatment, HLH is almost universally fatal. However, with prompt referral and advancements in treatment over the past two decades, outcomes have greatly improved.