Consideration of Brain CT Imaging Standard for Mild Head Injuries.

It has been reported that various clinical criteria indicate computed tomography (CT) examination for mild head injury (MHI). However, the decision to perform CT for MHI largely depends on the physician. Data on severe head injuries is available in sources such as the Japan Neurotrauma Data Bank, but only a few data has been collected on MHI. A total of 1688 patients with MHI (Glasgow Coma Scale 14 and 15) treated at our hospital from June 2017 to May 2019 were reviewed. CT was performed in 1237 patients (73.28%), and intracranial hemorrhage was detected in 50 patients. Three patients deteriorated, and all were surgically treated. Statistical analysis of the presence or absence of acute intracranial hemorrhage and "risk factors for complications of intracranial lesions in MHI" showed significant differences in unclear or ambiguous accident history (p = 0.022), continued post-traumatic amnesia (p < 0.01), trauma above the clavicles including clinical signs of skull fracture (skull base or depressed skull fracture) (p = 0.012), age <60 years (p < 0.01), coagulation disorders (p < 0.01), and alcohol or drug intoxication (p < 0.01). The 453 patients who did not satisfy these risk factors included only one patient with intracranial hemorrhage, so the negative predictive value was 99.78%. This study shows that the "risk factors for complications of intracranial lesions in MHI" are effective criteria for excluding acute intracranial hemorrhage and CT should be actively considered for patients with the above factors that showed significant differences.

Inhibition of P2X4 and P2X7 receptors improves histological and behavioral outcomes after experimental traumatic brain injury in rats.

Release of large amounts of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a gliotransmitter, into the extracellular space by traumatic brain injury (TBI) is considered to activate the microglia followed by release of inflammatory cytokines resulting in excessive inflammatory response that induces secondary brain injury. The present study investigated whether antagonists of ATP receptors (P2X4 and/or P2X7) on microglia are beneficial for reducing the post-injury inflammatory response that leads to secondary injury, a prognostic aggravation factor of TBI. Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to cortical contusion injury (CCI) and randomly assigned to injury and drug treatment conditions, as follows: i) No surgical intervention (naïve group); ii) dimethyl sulfoxide treatment after CCI (CCI-control group); iii) 5-BDBD (antagonist of P2X4 receptor) treatment after CCI (CCI-5-BDBD group); iv) CCI-AZ11645373 (antagonist of P2X7 receptor) treatment after CCI (CCI-AZ11645373 group); v) or 5-BDBD and AZ11645373 treatment after CCI (CCI-5-BDBD + AZ11645373 group). In the CCI-5-BDBD, CCI-AZ11645373, and CCI-5-BDBD + AZ11645373 groups, expression of activated microglia was suppressed in the ipsilateral cortex and hippocampus 3 days after the CCI. Western blotting with ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1 antibody revealed that administration of CCI-5-BDBD and/or CCI-AZ11645373 suppressed expression of microglia and reduced expression of inflammatory cytokine mRNA 3 days after the CCI. Furthermore, the plus maze test, which reflects the spatial memory function and involves the hippocampal function, showed improvement 28 days after secondary injury to the hippocampus. These findings confirmed that blocking the P2X4 and P2X7 receptors, which are ATP receptors central in gliotransmission, suppresses microglial activation and subsequent cytokine expression after brain injury, and demonstrates the potential as an effective treatment for reducing secondary brain injury.

Anti-inflammatory effect of P2Y1 receptor blocker MRS2179 in a rat model of traumatic brain injury.

The aim of the current study was to determine the effects of cerebral contusion injury with purinergic adenosine triphosphate Y1 (P2Y1) receptor blockers on postinjury inflammatory responses. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is released into the extracellular space in several in vivo models, including traumatic brain injury. Released ATP triggers neuroinflammation via activation of microglial cells. P2Y1 receptor blockers were reported to suppress extracellular ATP elevation in several disease models through inhibition of cellular ATP release. In addition to the beneficial effects of inflammation, excess inflammatory reactions cause secondary damage and aggravate outcomes. Here, we assessed the effect of the selective P2Y1 receptor blocker MRS2179 on its potential to prevent posttraumatic inflammation in a rat cerebral contusion model. Cerebral contusion injury was induced in the rat cerebral cortex. Either MRS2179 or artificial cerebral spinal fluid as a control was administered in situ into the center of contused tissue via a subcutaneously implanted osmotic pump. Galectin 3, a marker of microglia and proinflammatory cytokines, was measured 1, 3 and 7 days following injury. Another group of rats was assessed for behavioral performance up to 28 days after injury, including the beam walk test, neurological response test and plus maze test. The Galectin 3 levels in the cortex around the contusion cavity and in the cortex far from the contusion cavity were significantly suppressed by MRS2179 administration on postinjury Days 1 and 3 (p < 0.05). However, administration of MRS2179 failed to improve behavioral outcome. Administration of MRS2179 successfully suppressed microglial activation in a traumatic brain injury model, which will be a potent treatment option in the future. Further study is required to conclude its therapeutic effects.

Tectal Low-Grade Glioma with H3 K27M Mutation.

BACKGROUND: In the revised World Health Organization 2016 classification of central nervous system tumors, "diffuse midline glioma, H3 K27M-mutant" has been added as a new diagnostic entity. However, some confusion exists concerning this diagnostic entity because H3 K27M-mutant diffuse midline glioma is diagnosed with grade IV regardless of morphologic phenotype. Furthermore, the significance of H3 K27M mutation in tumors that aren't typical "diffuse midline glioma, H3 K27M-mutant," such as those with an unusual location and nontypical histology, remains unclear. CASE DESCRIPTION: To elucidate further such unusual tumors, we describe here a rare case of pediatric low-grade glioma located in the tectum, which was morphologically a pilocytic astrocytoma (PA) with genetically H3 K27M mutation but no microvascular proliferation, necrosis, mitoses, or other genetic alterations, insofar as we were able to observe. At the latest follow-up, 28 months after surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy, the patient was found to be free from any neurologic deficits and MRI demonstrated that the tumor was stable without tumor regrowth. This case might be identified as "diffuse midline glioma, H3 K27M-mutant", grade IV, when applying only the current World Health Organization 2016 classification. In addition, we discuss the morphologically benign gliomas harboring the H3 K27M mutation based on the literature. CONCLUSIONS: We describe here a rare case and present a short literature review of circumscribed/nondiffuse gliomas, particularly in PA with H3 K27M mutation. However, the significance of H3 K27M mutation for PA remains unclear, so further studies and clinical data are needed to elucidate the biology and optimal treatment of such tumors.

Pituitary Apoplexy Accompanying Temporal Lobe Seizure as a Complication.

BACKGROUND: Pituitary apoplexy is an acute clinical syndrome caused by infarction and/or hemorrhage of pituitary adenoma, which typically presents with severe headache, visual deterioration, and endocrine abnormalities. However, temporal lobe seizure (and temporal lobe epilepsy) has not been viewed as a symptom of pituitary apoplexy in the literature. CASE DESCRIPTION: To elucidate further such a rare complication of temporal lobe seizure, we describe here the rare clinical manifestations of a 55-year-old previously healthy man with pituitary apoplexy harboring headache, combined palsies involving cranial nerves III to VI, endocrinologic disturbances, and temporal lobe seizure. In addition, we discuss the temporal lobe seizure (and temporal lobe epilepsy) associated with pituitary adenoma based on the literature. CONCLUSIONS: Although further accumulation of clinical data is needed, we would like to emphasize the importance of recognition of temporal lobe seizure caused by pituitary apoplexy, and to suggest that early surgery could be considered as an option in patients displaying such a rare complication.

A Case of Pleomorphic Xanthoastrocytoma with Intracranial Hemorrhage in a Child.

Intracranial hemorrhage associated with lower grade glioma is unusual. Furthermore, pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma (PXA) with intracranial hemorrhage, especially in a children, is extremely rare. We report here a rare case of child PXA with intracranial hemorrhage. An 11-year-old girl was admitted with headache and convulsions. A computed tomography scan demonstrated intracranial hemorrhage in the right temporal lobe. An angiogram revealed no vascular disease including arteriovenous malformation, angioma or aneurysm. Magnetic resonance (MR) imaging demonstrated no enhanced or cystic mass to suggest tumor presence. A follow-up study by MR imaging at 6 months after onset of the intracranial hemorrhage revealed a cystic mass lesion, with gadolinium-enhancement, in the right temporal lobe. This mass lesion was removed by surgery and diagnosed as PXA. Areas of tumor lesion could not be diagnosed immediately after the intracranial hemorrhage since bleeding lesion was prominent. Lower grade gliomas, including PXAs, should therefore be taken into consideration in the differential diagnosis of pediatric intracranial hemorrhage cases, separately from vascular disease and/or malignant brain tumor.

Unusual presentation of a skull base mass lesion in sarcoidosis mimicking malignant neoplasm: a case report.

BACKGROUND: Sarcoidosis is a multi-organ disease of unknown etiology characterised by the presence of epithelioid granulomas, without caseous necrosis. Systemic sarcoidosis is rare among children, while neurosarcoidosis in children is even rarer whether it is systemic or not. CASE PRESENTATION: We described the case of a 12-year-old boy who presented with monocular vision loss accompanied by unusual MRI features of an extensive meningeal infiltrating mass lesion. The patient underwent surgical resection (biopsy) via a frontotemporal craniotomy to establish a definitive diagnosis based on the histopathology, since neurosarcoidosis remains a very difficult diagnosis to establish from neuroradiogenic imagings. Based on the histopathology of the resected mass lesion, neurosarcoidosis was diagnosed. On follow-up after 3 months of steroid therapy, the patient displayed a good response on the imaging studies. MRI revealed that the preexisting mass lesion had regressed extremely. We also conducted a small literature review on imaging studies, manifestations, appropriate treatments, etc., in particular neurosarcoidosis including children. CONCLUSION: Although extremely rare, neurosarcoidosis, even in children, should be considered in the differential diagnosis of skull base mass lesions to avoid unnecessary aggressive surgery and delay in treatment, since surgery may have little role in the treatment of sarcoidosis.

Metabolic fate of glucose in rats with traumatic brain injury and pyruvate or glucose treatments: A NMR spectroscopy study.

Administration of sodium pyruvate (SP; 9.08 µmol/kg, i.p.), ethyl pyruvate (EP; 0.34 µmol/kg, i.p.) or glucose (GLC; 11.1 µmol/kg, i.p.) to rats after unilateral controlled cortical impact (CCI) injury has been reported to reduce neuronal loss and improve cerebral metabolism. In the present study these doses of each fuel or 8% saline (SAL; 5.47 nmoles/kg) were administered immediately and at 1, 3, 6 and 23 h post-CCI. At 24 h all CCI groups and non-treated Sham injury controls were infused with [1,2 13C] glucose for 68 min 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra were obtained from cortex + hippocampus tissues from left (injured) and right (contralateral) hemispheres. All three fuels increased lactate labeling to a similar degree in the injured hemisphere. The amount of lactate labeled via the pentose phosphate and pyruvate recycling (PPP + PR) pathway increased in CCI-SAL and was not improved by SP, EP, and GLC treatments. Oxidative metabolism, as assessed by glutamate labeling, was reduced in CCI-SAL animals. The greatest improvement in oxidative metabolism was observed in animals treated with SP and fewer improvements after EP or GLC treatments. Compared to SAL, all three fuels restored glutamate and glutamine labeling via pyruvate carboxylase (PC), suggesting improved astrocyte metabolism following fuel treatment. Only SP treatments restored the amount of [4 13C] glutamate labeled by the PPP + PR pathway to sham levels. Milder injury effects in the contralateral hemisphere appear normalized by either SP or EP treatments, as increases in the total pool of 13C lactate and labeling of lactate in glycolysis, or decreases in the ratio of PC/PDH labeling of glutamine, were found only for CCI-SAL and CCI-GLC groups compared to Sham. The doses of SP, EP and GLC examined in this study all enhanced lactate labeling and restored astrocyte-specific PC activity but differentially affected neuronal metabolism after CCI injury. The restoration of astrocyte metabolism by all three fuel treatments may partially underlie their abilities to improve cerebral glucose utilization and to reduce neuronal loss following CCI injury.

Surgically Cured, Relapsed Pneumococcal Meningitis Due to Bone Defects, Non-invasively Identified by Three-dimensional Multi-detector Computed Tomography.

A 43-year-old Japanese man presented with a history of bacterial meningitis (BM). He was admitted to our department with a one-day history of headache and was diagnosed with relapse of BM based on the cerebrospinal fluid findings. The conventional imaging studies showed serial findings suggesting left otitis media, a temporal cephalocele, and meningitis. Three-dimensional multi-detector computed tomography (3D-MDCT) showed left petrous bone defects caused by the otitis media, and curative surgical treatment was performed. Skull bone structural abnormalities should be considered a cause of relapsed BM. 3D-MDCT was useful for revealing the causal minimal bone abnormality and performing pre-surgical mapping.

Glucose administration after traumatic brain injury exerts some benefits and no adverse effects on behavioral and histological outcomes.

The impact of hyperglycemia after traumatic brain injury (TBI), and even the administration of glucose-containing solutions to head injured patients, remains controversial. In the current study adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were tested on behavioral tasks and then underwent surgery to induce sham injury or unilateral controlled cortical impact (CCI) injury followed by injections (i.p.) with either a 50% glucose solution (Glc; 2g/kg) or an equivalent volume of either 0.9% or 8% saline (Sal) at 0, 1, 3 and 6h post-injury. The type of saline treatment did not significantly affect any outcome measures, so these data were combined. Rats with CCI had significant deficits in beam-walking traversal time and rating scores (p's < 0.001 versus sham) that recovered over test sessions from 1 to 13 days post-injury (p's < 0.001), but these beam-walking deficits were not affected by Glc versus Sal treatments. Persistent post-CCI deficits in forelimb contraflexion scores and forelimb tactile placing ability were also not differentially affected by Glc or Sal treatments. However, deficits in latency to retract the right hind limb after limb extension were significantly attenuated in the CCI-Glc group (p < 0.05 versus CCI-Sal). Both CCI groups were significantly impaired in a plus maze test of spatial working memory on days 4, 9 and 14 post-surgery (p < 0.001 versus sham), and there was no effect of Glc versus Sal on this cognitive outcome measure. At 15 days post-surgery the loss of cortical tissue volume (p < 0.001 versus sham) was significantly less in the CCI-Glc group (30.0%; p < 0.05) compared to the CCI-Sal group (35.7%). Counts of surviving hippocampal hilar neurons revealed a significant (~40%) loss ipsilateral to CCI (p < 0.001 versus sham), but neuronal loss in the hippocampus was not different in the CCI-Sal and CCI-Glc groups. Taken together, these results indicate that an early elevation of blood glucose may improve some neurological outcomes and, importantly, the induction of hyperglycemia after isolated TBI did not adversely affect any sensorimotor, cognitive or histological outcomes.

Insights into the metabolic response to traumatic brain injury as revealed by (13)C NMR spectroscopy.

The present review highlights critical issues related to cerebral metabolism following traumatic brain injury (TBI) and the use of (13)C labeled substrates and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to study these changes. First we address some pathophysiologic factors contributing to metabolic dysfunction following TBI. We then examine how (13)C NMR spectroscopy strategies have been used to investigate energy metabolism, neurotransmission, the intracellular redox state, and neuroglial compartmentation following injury. (13)C NMR spectroscopy studies of brain extracts from animal models of TBI have revealed enhanced glycolytic production of lactate, evidence of pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) activation, and alterations in neuronal and astrocyte oxidative metabolism that are dependent on injury severity. Differential incorporation of label into glutamate and glutamine from (13)C labeled glucose or acetate also suggest TBI-induced adaptations to the glutamate-glutamine cycle.

Chronological changes in astrocytes induced by chronic electrical sensorimotor cortex stimulation in rats.

Motor cortex stimulation (MCS) is a treatment option for various disorders such as medically refractory pain, poststroke hemiplegia, and movement disorders. However, the exact mechanisms underlying its effects remain unknown. In this study, the effects of long-term chronic MCS were investigated by observing changes in astrocytes. A quadripolar stimulation electrode was implanted on the dura over the sensorimotor cortex of adult rats, and the cortex was continuously stimulated for 3 hours, 1 week, 4 weeks, and 8 weeks. Immunohistochemical staining of microglia (ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1 [Iba1] staining) and astrocytes (glial fibrillary acidic protein [GFAP] staining), and neuronal degeneration histochemistry (Fluoro-Jade B staining) were carried out to investigate the morphological changes following long-term chronic MCS. Iba1 staining and Fluoro-Jade B staining showed no evidence of Iba1-positive microglial changes or neurodegeneration. Following continuous MCS, GFAP-positive astrocytes were enlarged and their number increased in the cortex and the thalamus of the stimulated hemisphere. These findings indicate that chronic electrical stimulation can continuously activate astrocytes and result in morphological and quantitative changes. These changes may be involved in the mechanisms underlying the neuroplasticity effect induced by MCS.

Corticospinal descending direct wave elicited by subcortical stimulation.

Recent studies have indicated the importance of subcortical mapping of the corticospinal tract (CT) during tumor resection close to the primary motor area. It is substantial evidence that the corticospinal descending direct wave (D-wave) can be used as a guide for mapping of the primary motor cortex (M1) and for monitoring of the CT functional integrity. In the present study, the authors investigated the feasibility of D-wave recordings after subcortical stimulation. The authors examined 14 patients with brain tumors close to the M1 and/or CT, who exhibited no obvious motor deficit before surgery. Subcortical white matter was electrically stimulated in monopolar or bipolar fashion by recording the descending wave (D-wave) from the spinal epidural space using a catheter-type electrode. Subcortical D-wave was more clearly recorded after monopolar stimulation than after bipolar stimulation. The features of the subcortical D-wave, including its waveform, conduction velocity, and latency, were nearly identical to those of the corticospinal D-wave recorded after M1 stimulation. Subcortical D-wave amplitude was prone to change depending on the distance from the stimulation points to the CT. Changes in parameters of subcortical D-wave may provide valuable information to prevent postoperative motor deficit. Further studies are required to clarify the relationship between the distance from the stimulating point to the CT and the amplitude of the subcortically elicited D-wave.

c-Fos Expression After Chronic Electrical Stimulation of Sensorimotor Cortex in Rats.

Objectives. Motor cortex stimulation has been used as a treatment for intractable pain. However, the mechanisms underlying its effects remain unclear. In this study, neuroplasticity induced by chronic sensorimotor cortex stimulation was investigated experimentally on the basis of c-Fos expression. Materials and Methods. The experimental animals employed were adult male Wistar rats. A quadripolar stimulation electrode was positioned over the sensorimotor cortex. We examined the neural activation in response to chronic stimulation using c-Fos immunopositivity. Results. The results are as follows: 1) c-Fos was significantly expressed immediately after the stimulation compared with that in the control; 2) c-Fos expression became extensive over the various regions with an increase in stimulation duration; and 3) after two months of stimulation, c-Fos was expressed not only on the stimulation side, but also within the contralateral cerebral hemisphere. Conclusions. Changes in c-Fos expression induced by long-term stimulation indicate the existence of a time-dependent neural plasticity.