Surface displayed MerR increases mercury accumulation by green microalga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.

Mercury is a highly toxic trace metal that can accumulate in aquatic ecosystems and when resent at high concentrations can pose risks to both aquatic life and humans consuming contaminated fish. This research explores the use of the metalloregulatory protein MerR, known for its high affinity and selectivity toward mercury, in a novel application. Through a cell surface engineering approach, MerR was displayed on cells of green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. A hydroxyproline-rich GP1 protein was used as an anchor to construct the engineered strains GP1-MerR that expresses the fluorescent protein mVenus. The surface engineered GP1-MerR strain led up to five folds higher Hg2+ accumulation compared to the WT strain at concentration range from 10-9 to 10-7 M Hg2+. The binding of Hg2+ via MerR was specific and did not get significantly affected by major freshwater water quality variables such as Ca2+ and dissolved organic matter. The presence of other trace metals (Zn2+, Cu2+, Ni2+, Pb2+, Cd2+) in a same concentration range even resulted in 30-40 % increase in the accumulated Hg. Further, the engineered cells also demonstrated the ability to accumulate Hg2+ from the water extracts of the Hg-contaminated sediment samples. These results demonstrate a novel approach utilizing the cell surface display system in C. reinhardtii for its potential application in bioremediation.

Bifunctional Sildenafil Diazeniumdiolates Acting as Phosphodiesterase 5 Inhibitors and Nitric Oxide Donors- Towards Wound Healing.

Inefficient wound healing poses a global health challenge with a lack of efficient treatments. Wound healing issues often correlate with low endogenous nitric oxide (NO) levels. While exogenous delivery with NO-releasing compounds represents a promising therapeutic strategy, controlling the release of the highly reactive NO remains challenging. Phosphodiesterase 5 (PDE5) inhibitors, like sildenafil, have also been shown to promote wound healing. This study explores hybrid compounds, combining NO-releasing diazeniumdiolates with a sildenafil-derived PDE5 inhibitor. One compound demonstrated a favorable NO-release profile, triggered by an esterase (prodrug), and displayed in vitro nanomolar inhibition potency against PDE5 and thrombin-induced platelet aggregation. Both factors are known to promote blood flow and oxygenation. Thus, our findings unveil promising prospects for effective wound healing treatments.

Allylic Carbocyclic Inhibitors Covalently Bind Glycoside Hydrolases.

Allylic cyclitols were investigated as covalent inhibitors of glycoside hydrolases by chemical, enzymatic, proteomic, and computational methods. This approach was inspired by the C7 cyclitol natural product streptol glucoside, which features a potential carbohydrate leaving group in the 4-position (carbohydrate numbering). To test this hypothesis, carbocyclic inhibitors with leaving groups in the 4- and 6- positions were prepared. The results of enzyme kinetics analyses demonstrated that dinitrophenyl ethers covalently inhibit α-glucosidases of the GH13 family without reactivation. The labeled enzyme was studied by proteomics, and the active site residue Asp214 was identified as modified. Additionally, computational studies, including enzyme homology modeling and density functional theory (DFT) calculations, further delineate the electronic and structural requirements for activity. This study demonstrates that previously unexplored 4- and 6-positions can be exploited for successful inhibitor design.

Cyclitol metabolism is a central feature of Burkholderia leaf symbionts.

The symbioses between plants of the Rubiaceae and Primulaceae families with Burkholderia bacteria represent unique and intimate plant-bacterial relationships. Many of these interactions have been identified through PCR-dependent typing methods, but there is little information available about their functional and ecological roles. We assembled 17 new endophyte genomes representing endophytes from 13 plant species, including those of two previously unknown associations. Genomes of leaf endophytes belonging to Burkholderia s.l. show extensive signs of genome reduction, albeit to varying degrees. Except for one endophyte, none of the bacterial symbionts could be isolated on standard microbiological media. Despite their taxonomic diversity, all endophyte genomes contained gene clusters linked to the production of specialized metabolites, including genes linked to cyclitol sugar analog metabolism and in one instance non-ribosomal peptide synthesis. These genes and gene clusters are unique within Burkholderia s.l. and are likely horizontally acquired. We propose that the acquisition of secondary metabolite gene clusters through horizontal gene transfer is a prerequisite for the evolution of a stable association between these endophytes and their hosts.

Identification of Isonitrile-Containing Natural Products in Complex Biological Matrices through Ligation with Chlorooximes.

Isonitrile-containing natural products have garnered attention for their manifold bioactivities but are difficult to detect and isolate due to the chemical lability of the isonitrile functional group. Here, we used the isonitrile-chlorooxime ligation (INC) in a reactivity-based screening (RBS) protocol for the detection and isolation of alkaloid and terpene isonitriles in the cyanobacterium Fischerella ambigua and a marine sponge of the order Bubarida, respectively. A trifunctional probe bearing a chlorooxime moiety, a UV active aromatic moiety, and a bromine label facilitated the chemoselective reaction with isonitriles, UV-Vis spectroscopic detection, and mass spectrometric analysis. The INC-based RBS allowed for the detection, isolation, and structural elucidation of isonitriles in microgram quantities.

Catch-enrich-release approach for amine-containing natural products.

Amine-containing natural products are an important class of therapeutic compounds. Herein, we report a chemoselective approach to catch and enrich amine-containing natural products, and release them as underivatized compounds. The strategy exploits the selectivity of the enzyme legumain for the specific release of amine-containing natural products.

Leaf nodule endosymbiotic Burkholderia confer targeted allelopathy to their Psychotria hosts.

After a century of investigations, the function of the obligate betaproteobacterial endosymbionts accommodated in leaf nodules of tropical Rubiaceae remained enigmatic. We report that the α-D-glucose analogue (+)-streptol, systemically supplied by mature Ca. Burkholderia kirkii nodules to their Psychotria hosts, exhibits potent and selective root growth inhibiting activity. We provide compelling evidence that (+)-streptol specifically affects meristematic root cells transitioning to anisotropic elongation by disrupting cell wall organization in a mechanism of action that is distinct from canonical cellulose biosynthesis inhibitors. We observed no inhibitory or cytotoxic effects on organisms other than seed plants, further suggesting (+)-streptol as a bona fide allelochemical. We propose that the suppression of growth of plant competitors is a major driver of the formation and maintenance of the Psychotria-Burkholderia association. In addition to potential agricultural applications as a herbicidal agent, (+)-streptol might also prove useful to dissect plant cell and organ growth processes.

Mitigation of Pseudomonas syringae virulence by signal inactivation.

Pseudomonas syringae is an important plant pathogen of many valuable crops worldwide, with more than 60 identified pathovars. The phytotoxins produced by these organisms were related to the severity of the damage caused to the plant. An emerging strategy to treat bacterial infections relies on interference with their signaling systems. In this study, we investigated P. syringae pv. syringae, which produces the virulence factor mangotoxin that causes bacterial apical necrosis on mango leaves. A previously unknown signaling molecule named leudiazen was identified, determined to be unstable and volatile, and responsible for mangotoxin production. A strategy using potassium permanganate, compatible with organic farming, was developed to degrade leudiazen and thus to attenuate the pathogenicity of P. syringae pv. syringae.

Targeted Genome Mining Reveals the Psychrophilic Clostridium estertheticum Complex as a Potential Source for Novel Bacteriocins, Including Cesin A and Estercticin A.

Antimicrobial resistance in pathogenic bacteria is considered a major public health issue necessitating the discovery of alternative antimicrobial compounds. In this regard, targeted genome mining in bacteria occupying under-explored ecological niches has the potential to reveal such compounds, including bacteriocins. In this study, we determined the bacteriocin biosynthetic potential of the psychrophilic Clostridium estertheticum complex (CEC) through a combination of genome mining and phenotypic screening assays. The genome mining was performed in 40 CEC genomes using antiSMASH. The production of bacteriocin-like compounds was phenotypically validated through agar well (primary screening) and disk diffusion (secondary screening) assays using cell free supernatants (CFS) and partially purified extracts, respectively. Stability of four selected CFS against proteolytic enzymes, temperature and pH was determined while one CFS was analyzed by HRMS and MS/MS to identify potential bacteriocins. Twenty novel bacteriocin biosynthetic gene clusters (BBGC), which were classified into eight (six lantibiotics and two sactipeptides) distinct groups, were discovered in 18 genomes belonging to C. estertheticum (n = 12), C. tagluense (n = 3) and genomospecies2 (n = 3). Primary screening linked six BBGC with narrow antimicrobial activity against closely related clostridia species. All four preselected CFS retained activity after exposure to different proteolytic, temperature and pH conditions. Secondary screening linked BBGC1 and BBGC7 encoding a lantibiotic and sactipeptide, respectively, with activity against Bacillus cereus while lantibiotic-encoding BBGC2 and BBGC3 were linked with activity against B. cereus, Staphylococcus aureus (methicillin-resistant), Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. MS/MS analysis revealed that C. estertheticum CF004 produces cesin A, a short natural variant of nisin, and HRMS indicated the production of a novel sactipeptide named estercticin A. Therefore, we have shown the CEC, in particular C. estertheticum, is a source of novel and stable bacteriocins that have activities against clinically relevant pathogens.

Green Algae as a Drug Delivery System for the Controlled Release of Antibiotics.

New strategies to efficiently treat bacterial infections are crucial to circumvent the increase of resistant strains and to mitigate side effects during treatment. Skin and soft tissue infections represent one of the areas suffering the most from these resistant strains. We developed a new drug delivery system composed of the green algae, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, which is generally recognized as safe, to target specifically skin diseases. A two-step functionalization strategy was used to chemically modify the algae with the antibiotic vancomycin. Chlamydomonas reinhardtii was found to mask vancomycin and the insertion of a photocleavable linker was used for the release of the antibiotic. This living drug carrier was evaluated in presence of Bacillus subtilis and, only upon UVA1-mediated release, growth inhibition of bacteria was observed. These results represent one of the first examples of a living organism used as a drug delivery system for the release of an antibiotic by UVA1-irradiation.

Genetically encoded betaxanthin-based small-molecular fluorescent reporter for mammalian cells.

We designed and engineered a dye production cassette encoding a heterologous pathway, including human tyrosine hydroxylase and Amanita muscaria 4,5-DOPA dioxygenase, for the biosynthesis of the betaxanthin family of plant and fungal pigments in mammalian cells. The system does not impair cell viability, and can be used as a non-protein reporter system to directly visualize the dynamics of gene expression by profiling absorbance or fluorescence in the supernatant of cell cultures, as well as for fluorescence labeling of individual cells. Pigment profiling can also be multiplexed with reporter proteins such as mCherry or the human model glycoprotein SEAP (secreted alkaline phosphatase). Furthermore, absorbance measurement with a smartphone camera using standard application software enables inexpensive, low-tech reporter quantification.

Microviridin 1777: A Toxic Chymotrypsin Inhibitor Discovered by a Metabologenomic Approach.

The toxicity of the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa EAWAG 127a was evaluated against the sensitive grazer Thamnocephalus platyurus, and the extract possessed strong activity. To investigate the compounds responsible for cytotoxicity, a series of peptides from this cyanobacterium were studied using a combined genomic and molecular networking approach. The results led to the isolation, structure elucidation, and biological evaluation of microviridin 1777, which represents the most potent chymotrypsin inhibitor characterized from this family of peptides to date. Furthermore, the biosynthetic gene clusters of microviridin, anabaenopeptin, aeruginosin, and piricyclamide were located in the producing organism, and six additional natural products were identified by tandem mass spectrometry analyses. These results highlight the potential of modern techniques for the identification of natural products, demonstrate the ecological role of protease inhibitors produced by cyanobacteria, and raise ramifications concerning the presence of novel, yet uncharacterized, toxin families in cyanobacteria beyond microcystin.

Biosynthesis and Structure-Activity Relationship Investigations of the Diazeniumdiolate Antifungal Agent Fragin.

Only a few natural products incorporating a diazeniumdiolate moiety have been isolated, and these compounds usually display a broad range of biological activities. Only recently has the first diazeniumdiolate natural product biosynthetic gene cluster been identified in Burkholderia cenocepacia H111, which produces the fungicide (-)-fragin and the signal molecule rac-valdiazen. In this study, l-valine was identified as the initial substrate of (-)-fragin biosynthesis with the aid of feeding experiments using isotopically labelled amino acid. The formation of the diazeniumdiolate was chemically studied with several proposed intermediates. Our results indicate that the functional group is formed during an early stage of the biosynthesis. Furthermore, an oxime compound was identified as a degradation product of (-)-fragin and was also observed in the crude extract of the wild-type strain. Moreover, a structure-activity relationship analysis revealed that each moiety of (-)-fragin is essential for its biological activity.

3-Bromotetrazine: labelling of macromolecules via monosubstituted bifunctional s-tetrazines.

We report the synthesis and first characterisation of the novel chemical probe 3-bromotetrazine and establish its reactivity towards nucleophiles. This led to the synthesis of several novel classes of 3-monosubstituted s-tetrazines. A remarkable functional group selectivity is observed and is utilised to site-selectively functionalise different complex molecules. The stability of 3-bromotetrazine under the reaction conditions facilitated the development of a protocol for protein functionalisation, which enabled a "minimal", bifunctional tetrazine unit as a bio-orthogonal handle for inverse electron demand Diels-Alder reactions. Additionally, a novel tetrazine-based chemical probe was developed and its application in the context of thiol-targeted natural product isolation and labelling of mammalian cells is demonstrated.

Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of the Novel Growth Inhibitor Streptol Glucoside, Isolated from an Obligate Plant Symbiont.

The plant Psychotria kirkii hosts an obligatory bacterial symbiont, Candidatus Burkholderia kirkii, in nodules on their leaves. Recently, a glucosylated derivative of (+)-streptol, (+)-streptol glucoside, was isolated from the nodulated leaves and was found to possess a plant growth inhibitory activity. To establish a structure-activity relationship study, a convergent strategy was developed to obtain several pseudosugars from a single synthetic precursor. Furthermore, the glucosylation of streptol was investigated in detail and conditions affording specifically the α or ß glucosidic anomer were identified. Although (+)-streptol was the most active compound, its concentration in P. kirkii plant leaves extract was approximately ten-fold lower than that of (+)-streptol glucoside. These results provide compelling evidence that the glucosylation of (+)-streptol protects the plant host against the growth inhibitory effect of the compound, which might constitute a molecular cornerstone for this successful plant-bacteria symbiosis.

Biosynthesis of fragin is controlled by a novel quorum sensing signal.

Members of the diazeniumdiolate class of natural compounds show potential for drug development because of their antifungal, antibacterial, antiviral, and antitumor activities. Yet, their biosynthesis has remained elusive to date. Here, we identify a gene cluster directing the biosynthesis of the diazeniumdiolate compound fragin in Burkholderia cenocepacia H111. We provide evidence that fragin is a metallophore and that metal chelation is the molecular basis of its antifungal activity. A subset of the fragin biosynthetic genes is involved in the synthesis of a previously undescribed cell-to-cell signal molecule, valdiazen. RNA-Seq analyses reveal that valdiazen controls fragin biosynthesis and affects the expression of more than 100 genes. Homologs of the valdiazen biosynthesis genes are found in various bacteria, suggesting that valdiazen-like compounds may constitute a new class of signal molecules. We use structural information, in silico prediction of enzymatic functions and biochemical data to propose a biosynthesis route for fragin and valdiazen.

Evidence of horizontal gene transfer between obligate leaf nodule symbionts.

Bacteria of the genus Burkholderia establish an obligate symbiosis with plant species of the Rubiaceae and Primulaceae families. The bacteria, housed within the leaves, are transmitted hereditarily and have not yet been cultured. We have sequenced and compared the genomes of eight bacterial leaf nodule symbionts of the Rubiaceae plant family. All of the genomes exhibit features consistent with genome erosion. Genes potentially involved in the biosynthesis of kirkamide, an insecticidal C7N aminocyclitol, are conserved in most Rubiaceae symbionts. However, some have partially lost the kirkamide pathway due to genome erosion and are unable to synthesize the compound. Kirkamide synthesis is therefore not responsible for the obligate nature of the symbiosis. More importantly, we find evidence of intra-clade horizontal gene transfer (HGT) events affecting genes of the secondary metabolism. This indicates that substantial gene flow can occur at the early stages following host restriction in leaf nodule symbioses. We propose that host-switching events and plasmid conjugative transfers could have promoted these HGTs. This genomic analysis of leaf nodule symbionts gives, for the first time, new insights in the genome evolution of obligate symbionts in their early stages of the association with plants.

Isolation and Total Synthesis of Kirkamide, an Aminocyclitol from an Obligate Leaf Nodule Symbiont.

The new C7N aminocyclitol kirkamide (1) was isolated from leaf nodules of the plant Psychotria kirkii by using a genome-driven (1)H NMR-guided fractionation approach. The structure and absolute configuration were elucidated by HRMS, NMR, and single-crystal X-ray crystallography. An enantioselective total synthesis was developed, which delivered kirkamide (1) on a gram scale in 11 steps and features a Ferrier carbocyclization and a Pd-mediated hydroxymethylation. We propose that kirkamide is synthesized by Candidatus Burkholderia kirkii, the obligate leaf symbiont of Psychotria kirkii. Kirkamide (1) was shown to be toxic to aquatic arthropods and insects, thus suggesting that bacterial secondary metabolites play a protective role in the Psychotria/Burkholderia leaf nodule symbiosis.

Balgacyclamides, antiplasmodial heterocyclic peptides from Microcystis aeruguinosa EAWAG 251.

The isolation and structural characterization of three new heterocyclic and macrocyclic peptides, balgacyclamides A-C, from Microcystis aeruginosa EAWAG 251 are reported. The constitutions were determined by 2D-NMR methods and mass spectrometry, and the configurations were assigned after ozonolysis and hydrolysis by HPLC-MS methods using Marfey's method as well as GC-MS using authentic standards. Balgacyclamides A and B were active against Plasmodium falciparum K1 in the low micromolar range, while displaying low toxicity to rat myoblasts.

Chemical interference of biological systems with natural products.

Chemical compounds isolated from natural sources offer unique opportunities to understand life on a molecular level. In this account, an overview over different natural products investigated in our research group over the last decade is presented. We have shown that protein localization in living cells can be controlled by anguinomycins and derivatives. Furthermore, a truncated analog, SB640, was discovered that retained much of the natural product potency. Detailed studies of the iron chelator anachelin led to the development of a bio-inspired platform for the generation of bioactive interfaces. The discovery of natural products isolated from cyanobacteria such as nostocarboline, aerucyclamides, cyanopetolin 1020 and various microcystins is presented and their molecular mechanisms of action were investigated. The last part describes the synthesis and evaluation of various natural products involved in neuritogenesis and synapse reconstruction such as withanolide A, militarinone, farinosone A and C and torrubiellone C. Their potential with regard to their use in regenerative medicine is discussed.