Commercial fishing patterns influence odontocete whale-longline interactions in the Southern Ocean.

The emergence of longline fishing around the world has been concomitant with an increase in depredation-interactions by odontocete whales (removal of fish caught on hooks), resulting in substantial socio-economic and ecological impacts. The extent, trends and underlying mechanisms driving these interactions remain poorly known. Using long-term (2003-2017) datasets from seven major Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides) longline fisheries, this study assessed the levels and inter-annual trends of sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) and/or killer whale (Orcinus orca) interactions as proportions of fishing time (days) and fishing area (spatial cells). The role of fishing patterns in explaining between-fisheries variations of probabilities of odontocete interactions was investigated. While interaction levels remained globally stable since the early 2000s, they varied greatly between fisheries from 0 to >50% of the fishing days and area. Interaction probabilities were influenced by the seasonal concentration of fishing effort, size of fishing areas, density of vessels, their mobility and the depth at which they operated. The results suggest that between-fisheries variations of interaction probabilities are largely explained by the extent to which vessels provide whales with opportunities for interactions. Determining the natural distribution of whales will, therefore, allow fishers to implement better strategies of spatio-temporal avoidance of depredation.

Climate change and pollution speed declines in zebrafish populations.

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are potent environmental contaminants, and their effects on wildlife populations could be exacerbated by climate change, especially in species with environmental sex determination. Endangered species may be particularly at risk because inbreeding depression and stochastic fluctuations in male and female numbers are often observed in the small populations that typify these taxa. Here, we assessed the interactive effects of water temperature and EDC exposure on sexual development and population viability of inbred and outbred zebrafish (Danio rerio). Water temperatures adopted were 28 °C (current ambient mean spawning temperature) and 33 °C (projected for the year 2100). The EDC selected was clotrimazole (at 2 µg/L and 10 µg/L), a widely used antifungal chemical that inhibits a key steroidogenic enzyme [cytochrome P450(CYP19) aromatase] required for estrogen synthesis in vertebrates. Elevated water temperature and clotrimazole exposure independently induced male-skewed sex ratios, and the effects of clotrimazole were greater at the higher temperature. Male sex ratio skews also occurred for the lower clotrimazole exposure concentration at the higher water temperature in inbred fish but not in outbred fish. Population viability analysis showed that population growth rates declined sharply in response to male skews and declines for inbred populations occurred at lower male skews than for outbred populations. These results indicate that elevated temperature associated with climate change can amplify the effects of EDCs and these effects are likely to be most acute in small, inbred populations exhibiting environmental sex determination and/or differentiation.

The impact of predation by marine mammals on patagonian toothfish longline fisheries.

Predatory interaction of marine mammals with longline fisheries is observed globally, leading to partial or complete loss of the catch and in some parts of the world to considerable financial loss. Depredation can also create additional unrecorded fishing mortality of a stock and has the potential to introduce bias to stock assessments. Here we aim to characterise depredation in the Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides) fishery around South Georgia focusing on the spatio-temporal component of these interactions. Antarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus gazella), sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus), and orcas (Orcinus orca) frequently feed on fish hooked on longlines around South Georgia. A third of longlines encounter sperm whales, but loss of catch due to sperm whales is insignificant when compared to that due to orcas, which interact with only 5% of longlines but can take more than half of the catch in some cases. Orca depredation around South Georgia is spatially limited and focused in areas of putative migration routes, and the impact is compounded as a result of the fishery also concentrating in those areas at those times. Understanding the seasonal behaviour of orcas and the spatial and temporal distribution of "depredation hot spots" can reduce marine mammal interactions, will improve assessment and management of the stock and contribute to increased operational efficiency of the fishery. Such information is valuable in the effort to resolve the human-mammal conflict for resources.

Comparative breeding and behavioral responses to ethinylestradiol exposure in wild and laboratory maintained zebrafish (Danio rerio) populations.

Genetic variation has a significant effect on behavior, fitness, and response to toxicants; however, this is rarely considered in ecotoxicological studies. We compared fitness-related behavioral traits, breeding activity, and the effects of exposure to the environmental estrogen ethinylestradiol (EE(2)) on reproduction in a laboratory (Wild Indian Karyotype, WIK) strain and a wild-caught population (Bangladesh, BLD01) of Danio rerio (zebrafish). In WIK fish, males with higher observed heterozygocity were more active reproductively and more successful in securing parentage, but these relationships were not apparent in the BLD01 fish. The frequency of reproductive behaviors increased in WIK zebrafish for exposure to 0.4 ng/L EE(2), which was not apparent in the BLD01 zebrafish. The different strains showed the same threshold for hepatic vitellogenin gene (vtg) induction (2.2 ng EE(2)/L), but results suggested an elevated response level in the BLD01. There were no effects on total egg production up to 2.2 ng EE(2)/L in either population; however, there was reduced egg fertilization rate at 2.2 ng EE(2)/L in the BLD01 fish. These results show consistency in the general responses to EE(2) between these two genetically divergent strains of zebrafish, but also illustrate differences in their breeding biology and response sensitivities. These findings highlight the need for due consideration of the source (and genetics) of populations used in ecological risk assessment for accurate comparisons among studies.

Endocrine disrupting chemicals and sexual behaviors in fish--a critical review on effects and possible consequences.

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) enter aquatic ecosystems through discharged effluents, mainly from wastewater treatment works and diffuse run off from land, and affect a wide range of aquatic biota, including fish. Evidence for altered physiology in fish as a consequence of endocrine disruption is global, with some of the most widely reported effects on sexual development and function. In recent years, research has shown that fish behaviors can also be affected by EDCs which potentially has wide implications for individual fitness and population level outcomes. This review presents a critical assessment on reported effects of EDCs on behavior in fish, focusing on behaviors associated with reproduction. We investigate commonalities and differences in sexual behaviors between fish species most commonly applied in ecotoxicology, drawing out common principles for impacts of EDCs and then reviewing the evidence for, and implications of, disruptions of these behaviors after exposures to EDCs. In an analysis of the reported effects of exposure to the estrogen ethinylestradiol, we show that life-stage at exposure is a key factor determining behavioral responses of affected populations. EDC-induced changes in behavior occur at similar concentrations as for established biomarker responses (e.g. vitellogenin induction for estrogens), indicating behavior is equally sensitive (and noninvasive) as an indicator of EDC exposure. Adopting behaviors in fish as indicators of chemical exposure and effects, however, still has many technical and interpretation challenges and there is very little information available on how behaviors under laboratory conditions equate with those occurring in wild populations.

Impacts of early life exposure to estrogen on subsequent breeding behavior and reproductive success in zebrafish.

Impacts of exposure to environmental estrogens on reproductive development are well documented, but recently wider concern has been raised due to evidence that such exposures can disrupt normal patterns of reproductive behavior, dominance, and parentage, with potential population level implications. It is fundamental therefore to understand any such effects for effective risk assessment. This study investigated the impact of a transient exposure to ethinylestradiol (EE(2)) during early life (from 20-60 days post fertilization), including at a dosing level within the environmental range, on the subsequent reproductive behavior and success in both male and female zebrafish (Danio rerio) in competitive breeding scenarios. There were no obvious effects of the early life EE(2) exposures on the subsequent gonadal phenotypes in either mature males or females. In fact, reproductive success in males exposed to 2.76 ng EE(2)/L was increased in competitive spawning scenarios. In contrast, exposure of females to EE(2) (9.86 ng/L) during early life reduced their subsequent reproductive success in competitive spawning scenarios. Mate choice experiments suggested this was a consequence of the females' diminished courting behavior toward males, rather than any male preference for unexposed females. Reproductive capability of females is generally considered a key determinant in population demographics and dynamics, and therefore the effect of exposure to EE(2) on female reproductive success may have significant implications for exposed fish populations.