Cell type-specific mechanisms coupling protease-activated receptor-1 to infectious colitis pathogenesis.

BACKGROUND: Protease-activated receptor-1 (PAR-1) plays a major role in multiple disease processes, including colitis. Understanding the mechanisms coupling PAR-1 to disease pathogenesis is complicated by the fact that PAR-1 is broadly expressed across multiple cell types. OBJECTIVE: Determine the specific contributions of PAR-1 expressed by macrophages and colonic enterocytes to infectious colitis. METHODS: Mice carrying a conditional PAR-1 allele were generated and bred to mice expressing Cre recombinase in a myeloid- (PAR-1ΔM ) or enterocyte-specific (PAR-1ΔEPI ) fashion. Citrobacter rodentium colitis pathogenesis was analyzed in mice with global PAR-1 deletion (PAR-1-/- ) and cell type-specific deletions. RESULTS: Constitutive deletion of PAR-1 had no significant impact on weight loss, crypt hypertrophy, crypt abscess formation, or leukocyte infiltration in Citrobacter colitis. However, colonic shortening was significantly blunted in infected PAR-1-/- mice, and these animals exhibited decreased local levels of IL-1ß, IL-22, IL-6, and IL-17A. In contrast, infected PAR-1ΔM mice lost less weight and had fewer crypt abscesses relative to controls. PAR-1ΔM mice had diminished CD3+ T cell infiltration into colonic tissue, but macrophage and CD4+ T cell infiltration were similar to controls. Also contrasting results in global knockouts, PAR-1ΔM mice exhibited lower levels of IL-1ß, but not Th17-related cytokines (ie, IL-22, IL-6, IL-17A). Infected PAR-1ΔEPI mice exhibited increased crypt hypertrophy and crypt abscess formation, but local cytokine elaboration was similar to controls. CONCLUSIONS: These studies reveal complex, cell type-specific roles for PAR-1 in modulating the immune response to Citrobacter colitis that are not readily apparent in analyses limited to mice with global PAR-1 deficiency.

NF-κB RelA renders tumor-associated macrophages resistant to and capable of directly suppressing CD8+ T cells for tumor promotion.

Activation of the inflammatory transcription factor NF-κB in tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) is assumed to contribute to tumor promotion. However, whether and how NF-κB drives the antitumor macrophages to become pro-tumorigenic have not been determined in any cancer type yet. Similarly, how TAMs repress CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) remains largely unknown, although their importance in regulatory T (Treg) cell regulation and tumor promotion has been well appreciated. Here, using an endogenous lung cancer model we uncover a direct crosstalk between TAMs and CTLs. TAMs suppress CTLs through the T-cell inhibitory molecule B7x (B7-H4/B7S1) in a cell-cell contact manner, whereas CTLs kill TAMs in a tumor antigen-specific manner. Remarkably, TAMs secrete the known T-cell suppressive cytokine interleukin-10 (IL-10) to activate, but not to repress, CTLs. Notably, one major role of cell-intrinsic NF-κB RelA is to drive TAMs to suppress CTLs for tumor promotion. It induces B7x expression in TAMs directly, and restricts IL-10 expression indirectly by repressing expression of the NF-κB cofactor Bcl3 and subsequent Bcl3/NF-κB1-mediated transcription of IL-10. It also renders TAMs resistant to CTLs by up-regulating anti-apoptotic genes. These studies help understand how immunity is shaped in lung tumorigenesis, and suggest a RelA-targeted immunotherapy for this deadliest cancer.

Enhanced survival following oral and systemic Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium infection in polymeric immunoglobulin receptor knockout mice.

BACKGROUND: Polymeric immunoglobulin receptor (pIgR) transport of secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA) to mucosal surfaces is thought to promote gut integrity and immunity to Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium), an invasive pathogen in mice. To elucidate potential mechanisms, we assessed intestinal barrier function and both oral and systemic S. Typhimurium virulence in pIgR knockout (KO) and wildtype (WT) mice. METHODS: In uninfected animals, we harvested jejunal segments for Ussing chamber analyses of transepithelial resistance (TER); mesenteric lymph nodes (mLN) for bacterial culture; and serum and stool for IgA. Separately, we infected mice either orally or intravenously (IV) with S. Typhimurium to compare colonization, tissue dynamics, and inflammation between KOs and WTs. RESULTS: Uninfected KOs displayed decreased TER and dramatically increased serum IgA and decreased fecal IgA vs. WT; however, KO mLNs yielded fewer bacterial counts. Remarkably, WTs challenged orally with S. Typhimurium exhibited increased splenomegaly, tissue colonization, and pro-inflammatory cytokines vs. pIgR KOs, which showed increased survival following either oral or IV infection. CONCLUSIONS: Absence of pIgR compromises gut integrity but does not exacerbate bacterial translocation nor S. Typhimurium infection. These findings raise the possibility that immune adaptation to increased gut permeability and elevated serum IgA in the setting of SIgA deficiency provides compensatory protection against invasive gut pathogens.

Guanylate cyclase C reduces invasion of intestinal epithelial cells by bacterial pathogens.

The guanylate cyclase C (GC-C) receptor regulates electrolyte and water secretion into the gut following activation by the E. coli enterotoxin STa, or by weaker endogenous agonists guanylin and uroguanylin. Our previous work has demonstrated that GC-C plays an important role in controlling initial infection as well as carrying load of non-invasive bacterial pathogens in the gut. Here, we use Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium to determine whether GC-C signaling is important in host defense against pathogens that actively invade enterocytes. In vitro studies indicated that GC-C signaling significantly reduces Salmonella invasion into Caco2-BBE monolayers. Relative to controls, GC-C knockout mice develop severe systemic illness following oral Salmonella infection, characterized by disrupted intestinal mucus layer, elevated cytokines and organ CFUs, and reduced animal survival. In Salmonella-infected wildtype mice, oral gavage of GC-C agonist peptide reduced host/pathogen physical interaction and diminished bacterial translocation to mesenteric lymph nodes. These studies suggest that early life susceptibility to STa-secreting enterotoxigenic E. coli may be counter-balanced by a critical role of GC-C in protecting the mucosa from non-STa producing, invasive bacterial pathogens.

Guanylate cyclase 2C agonism corrects CFTR mutants.

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disorder in which epithelium-generated fluid flow from the lung, intestine, and pancreas is impaired due to mutations disrupting CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) channel function. CF manifestations of the pancreas and lung are present in the vast majority of CF patients, and 15% of CF infants are born with obstructed gut or meconium ileus. However, constipation is a significantly underreported outcome of CF disease, affecting 47% of the CF patients, and management becomes critical in the wake of increasing life span of CF patients. In this study, we unraveled a potentially novel molecular role of a membrane-bound cyclic guanosine monophosphate-synthesizing (cGMP-synthesizing) intestinal enzyme, guanylate cyclase 2C (GCC) that could be targeted to ameliorate CF-associated intestinal fluid deficit. We demonstrated that GCC agonism results in functional rescue of murine F508del/F508del and R117H/R117H Cftr and CFTR mutants in CF patient-derived intestinal spheres. GCC coexpression and activation facilitated processing and ER exit of F508del CFTR and presented a potentially novel rescue modality in the intestine, similar to the CF corrector VX-809. Our findings identify GCC as a biological CFTR corrector and potentiator in the intestine.

Erratum: Thermoneutral housing exacerbates nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in mice and allows for sex-independent disease modeling.

This corrects the article DOI: 10.1038/nm.4346.

Thermoneutral housing exacerbates nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in mice and allows for sex-independent disease modeling.

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), a common prelude to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma, is the most common chronic liver disease worldwide. Defining the molecular mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of NAFLD has been hampered by a lack of animal models that closely recapitulate the severe end of the disease spectrum in humans, including bridging hepatic fibrosis. Here we demonstrate that a novel experimental model employing thermoneutral housing, as opposed to standard housing, resulted in lower stress-driven production of corticosterone, augmented mouse proinflammatory immune responses and markedly exacerbated high-fat diet (HFD)-induced NAFLD pathogenesis. Disease exacerbation at thermoneutrality was conserved across multiple mouse strains and was associated with augmented intestinal permeability, an altered microbiome and activation of inflammatory pathways that are associated with the disease in humans. Depletion of Gram-negative microbiota, hematopoietic cell deletion of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and inactivation of the IL-17 axis resulted in altered immune responsiveness and protection from thermoneutral-housing-driven NAFLD amplification. Finally, female mice, typically resistant to HFD-induced obesity and NAFLD, develop full disease characteristics at thermoneutrality. Thus, thermoneutral housing provides a sex-independent model of exacerbated NAFLD in mice and represents a novel approach for interrogation of the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying disease pathogenesis.

Activation of TGF-ß activated kinase 1 promotes colon mucosal pathogenesis in inflammatory bowel disease.

The etiology and mechanisms for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) are incompletely known. Determination of new, clinically important mechanisms for intestinal inflammation is imperative for developing effective therapies to treat IBD We sought to define a widespread mechanism for colon mucosal inflammation via the activation of TGF-ß activated Kinase 1 (TAK1), a central regulator of cellular inflammatory actions. Activation of TAK1 and the downstream inflammatory signaling mediators was determined in pediatric patients with ulcerative colitis (UC) or Crohn's disease (CD) as well as in DSS-induced and spontaneous IBD in mice. The role of TAK1 in facilitating intestinal inflammation in murine models of IBD was investigated by using (5Z)-7-Oxozeaenol, a highly selective pharmacological inhibitor of TAK1. We found hyper-activation of TAK1 in patients with UC or CD and in murine models of IBD Pharmacological inhibition of TAK1 prevented loss in body weight, disease activity, microscopic histopathology, infiltration of inflammatory cells in the colon mucosa, and elevated proinflammatory cytokine production in two murine models of IBD We demonstrated that at the early phase of the disease activation of TAK1 is restricted in the epithelial cells. However, at a more advanced stage of the disease, TAK1 activation predominantly occurs in nonepithelial cells, especially in macrophages. These findings elucidate the activation of TAK1 as crucial in promoting intestinal inflammation. Thus, the TAK1 activation pathway may represent a suitable target to design new therapies for treating IBD in humans.

Myeloid-derived NF-κB negative regulation of PU.1 and c/EBP-ß-driven pro-inflammatory cytokine production restrains LPS-induced shock.

Sepsis is a life-threatening event predominantly caused by Gram-negative bacteria. Bacterial infection causes a pronounced macrophage (MΦ) and dendritic cell activation that leads to excessive pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-1ß, IL-6 and TNF-α production (cytokine storm), resulting in endotoxic shock. Previous experimental studies have revealed that inhibiting NF-κB signaling ameliorates disease symptoms; however, the contribution of myeloid p65 in endotoxic shock remains elusive. In this study, we demonstrate increased mortality in mice lacking p65 in the myeloid lineage (p65Δmye) compared with wild type mice upon ultra-pure LPS challenge. We show that increased susceptibility to LPS-induced shock was associated with elevated serum level of IL-1ß and IL-6. Mechanistic analyses revealed that LPS-induced pro-inflammatory cytokine production was ameliorated in p65-deficient bone marrow-derived MΦs; however, p65-deficient 'activated' peritoneal MΦs exhibited elevated IL-1ß and IL-6. We show that the elevated pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion was due, in part, to increased accumulation of IL-1ß mRNA and protein in activated inflammatory MΦs. The increased IL-1ß was linked with heightened binding of PU.1 and CCAAT/enhancer binding protein-ß to Il1b and Il6 promoters in activated inflammatory MΦs. Our data provide insight into a role for NF-κB in the negative regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines in myeloid cells.

Guanylin and uroguanylin are produced by mouse intestinal epithelial cells of columnar and secretory lineage.

Guanylin (GN) and uroguanylin (UGN), through activation of guanylyl cyclase C (GCC), serve to control intestinal fluid homeostasis. Both peptides are produced in the intestinal epithelium, but their cellular origin has not been fully charted. Using quantitative PCR and an improved in situ hybridization technique (RNAscope), we have assessed the expression of GN (Guca2a), UGN (Guca2b), and GCC (Gucy2c) in mouse intestine. In the crypts of Lieberkühn, expression of Guca2a and Guca2b was restricted to cells of secretory lineage, at the crypt's base, and to a region above, previously identified as a common origin of cellular differentiation. In this compartment, comparatively uniform levels of Guca2a and Guca2b expression were observed throughout the length of the gut. In contrast, Guca2a and Guca2b expression in the villus-surface region was more variable, and reflected the distinct, but overlapping expression pattern observed previously. Accordingly, in jejunum and ileum, Guca2a and Guca2b were abundantly expressed by enterocytes, whereas in colon only Guca2a transcript was found in the surface region. In duodenum, only low levels of Guca2b transcript were observed in columnar cells, and Guca2a expression was restricted entirely to cells of the secretory lineage. Gucy2c was shown to be expressed relatively uniformly along the rostrocaudal and crypt-villus axes and was also found in the duodenal glands. Our study reveals novel aspects of the cellular localization of the GCC signaling axis that, apart from its role in the regulation of fluid balance, link it to pH regulation, cell cycle control, and host defense.

Commensal microbes drive intestinal inflammation by IL-17-producing CD4+ T cells through ICOSL and OX40L costimulation in the absence of B7-1 and B7-2.

The costimulatory B7-1 (CD80)/B7-2 (CD86) molecules, along with T-cell receptor stimulation, together facilitate T-cell activation. This explains why in vivo B7 costimulation neutralization efficiently silences a variety of human autoimmune disorders. Paradoxically, however, B7 blockade also potently moderates accumulation of immune-suppressive regulatory T cells (Tregs) essential for protection against multiorgan systemic autoimmunity. Here we show that B7 deprivation in mice overrides the necessity for Tregs in averting systemic autoimmunity and inflammation in extraintestinal tissues, whereas peripherally induced Tregs retained in the absence of B7 selectively mitigate intestinal inflammation caused by Th17 effector CD4(+) T cells. The need for additional immune suppression in the intestine reflects commensal microbe-driven T-cell activation through the accessory costimulation molecules ICOSL and OX40L. Eradication of commensal enteric bacteria mitigates intestinal inflammation and IL-17 production triggered by Treg depletion in B7-deficient mice, whereas re-establishing intestinal colonization with Candida albicans primes expansion of Th17 cells with commensal specificity. Thus, neutralizing B7 costimulation uncovers an essential role for Tregs in selectively averting intestinal inflammation by Th17 CD4(+) T cells with commensal microbe specificity.

Effect of guanylate cyclase-C activity on energy and glucose homeostasis.

Uroguanylin is a gastrointestinal hormone primarily involved in fluid and electrolyte handling. It has recently been reported that prouroguanylin, secreted postprandially, is converted to uroguanylin in the brain and activates the receptor guanylate cyclase-C (GC-C) to reduce food intake and prevent obesity. We tested central nervous system administration of two GC-C agonists and found no significant reduction of food intake. We also carefully phenotyped mice lacking the GC-C receptor and found them to have normal body weight, adiposity, and glucose tolerance. Interestingly, uroguanylin knockout mice had a small but significant increase in body weight and adiposity that was accompanied by glucose intolerance. Our data indicate that the modest effects of uroguanylin on energy and glucose homeostasis are not mediated by central GC-C receptors.

Thrombin drives tumorigenesis in colitis-associated colon cancer.

The established association between inflammatory bowel disease and colorectal cancer underscores the importance of inflammation in colon cancer development. On the basis of evidence that hemostatic proteases are powerful modifiers of both inflammatory pathologies and tumor biology, gene-targeted mice carrying low levels of prothrombin were used to directly test the hypothesis that prothrombin contributes to tumor development in colitis-associated colon cancer (CAC). Remarkably, imposing a modest 50% reduction in circulating prothrombin in fII+/- mice, a level that carries no significant bleeding risk, dramatically decreased adenoma formation following an azoxymethane/dextran sodium sulfate challenge. Similar results were obtained with pharmacologic inhibition of prothrombin expression or inhibition of thrombin proteolytic activity. Detailed longitudinal analyses showed that the role of thrombin in tumor development in CAC was temporally associated with the antecedent inflammatory colitis. However, direct studies of the antecedent colitis showed that mice carrying half-normal prothrombin levels were comparable to control mice in mucosal damage, inflammatory cell infiltration, and associated local cytokine levels. These results suggest that thrombin supports early events coupled to inflammation-mediated tumorigenesis in CAC that are distinct from overall inflammation-induced tissue damage and inflammatory cell trafficking. That prothrombin is linked to early events in CAC was strongly inferred by the observation that prothrombin deficiency dramatically reduced the formation of very early, precancerous aberrant crypt foci. Given the importance of inflammation in the development of colon cancer, these studies suggest that therapeutic interventions at the level of hemostatic factors may be an effective means to prevent and/or impede colitis-associated colon cancer progression.

Deletion of Fanca or Fancd2 dysregulates Treg in mice.

Fanconi anemia (FA) is a genetic disorder associated with bone marrow (BM) failure and leukemia. Recent studies demonstrate variable immune defects in FA. However, the cause for FA immunodeficiency is unknown. Here we report that deletion of Fanca or Fancd2 dysregulates the suppressive activity of regulatory T cells (Tregs), shown functionally as exacerbation of graft-vs-host disease (GVHD) in mice. Recipient mice of Fanca(-/-) or Fancd2(-/-) BM chimeras exhibited severe acute GVHD after allogeneic BM transplantation (BMT). T cells from Fanca(-/-) or Fancd2(-/-) mice induced higher GVHD lethality than those from wild-type (WT) littermates. FA Tregs possessed lower proliferative suppression potential compared with WT Tregs, as demonstrated by in vitro proliferation assay and BMT. Analysis of CD25(+)Foxp3(+) Tregs indicated that loss of Fanca or Fancd2 dysregulated Foxp3 target gene expression. Additionally, CD25(+)Foxp3(+) Tregs of Fanca(-/-) or Fancd2(-/-) mice were less efficient in suppressing the production of GVHD-associated inflammatory cytokines. Consistently, aberrant NF-κB activity was observed in infiltrated T cells from FA GVHD mice. Conditional deletion of p65 in FA Tregs decreased GVHD mortality. Our study uncovers an essential role for FA proteins in maintaining Treg homeostasis, possibly explaining, at least in part, the immune deficiency reported in some FA patients.

The multiple roles of guanylate cyclase C, a heat stable enterotoxin receptor.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Guanylate cyclase C (GC-C) is a transmembrane receptor that is expressed primarily on intestinal epithelial cells. Activation of this receptor by its endogenous peptide ligands initiates cyclic guanosine monophosphate-dependent (cGMP) salt and water movement in the intestine. GC-C is targeted by the enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli heat-stable enterotoxin STa, which deregulates this pathway and causes secretory diarrhea. This review discusses current work on the physiological function of GC-C in the intestine. RECENT FINDINGS: Familial GC-C mutations demonstrate that epithelial cGMP signaling is critical to electrolyte and fluid balance in the neonatal intestine. Chronic deregulation of GC-C activity in early life increases susceptibility to a number of disorders, including obstruction and inflammatory bowel disease. Murine models indicate that GC-C regulates the composition of intestinal commensal microflora and that it suppresses bacterial infection and modulates colonic injury and inflammation. Therapeutic GC-C ligands are used to successfully treat constipation-predominant irritable bowel syndrome and recent studies show that extracellular cGMP is an important mechanism of reducing abdominal pain associated with this disorder. SUMMARY: Originally identified as a target of E. coli enterotoxin STa, GC-C is an important regulator of physiological salt and water homeostasis and may directly impact a wide range of intestinal disorders.

IL-17 signaling accelerates the progression of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in mice.

UNLABELLED: Inflammation plays a central pathogenic role in the pernicious metabolic and end-organ sequelae of obesity. Among these sequelae, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has become the most common chronic liver disease in the developed world. The twinned observations that obesity is associated with increased activation of the interleukin (IL)-17 axis and that this axis can regulate liver damage in diverse contexts prompted us to address the role of IL-17RA signaling in the progression of NAFLD. We further examined whether microbe-driven IL-17A regulated NAFLD development and progression. We show here that IL-17RA(-/-) mice respond to high-fat diet stress with significantly greater weight gain, visceral adiposity, and hepatic steatosis than wild-type controls. However, obesity-driven lipid accumulation was uncoupled from its end-organ consequences in IL-17RA(-/-) mice, which exhibited decreased steatohepatitis, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH)-oxidase enzyme expression, and hepatocellular damage. Neutralization of IL-17A significantly reduced obesity-driven hepatocellular damage in wild-type mice. Further, colonization of mice with segmented filamentous bacteria (SFB), a commensal that induces IL-17A production, exacerbated obesity-induced hepatocellular damage. In contrast, SFB depletion protected from obesity-induced hepatocellular damage. CONCLUSION: These data indicate that obesity-driven activation of the IL-17 axis is central to the development and progression of NAFLD to steatohepatitis and identify the IL-17 pathway as a novel therapeutic target in this condition.

Immunosuppressive CD71+ erythroid cells compromise neonatal host defence against infection.

Newborn infants are highly susceptible to infection. This defect in host defence has generally been ascribed to the immaturity of neonatal immune cells; however, the degree of hyporesponsiveness is highly variable and depends on the stimulation conditions. These discordant responses illustrate the need for a more unified explanation for why immunity is compromised in neonates. Here we show that physiologically enriched CD71(+) erythroid cells in neonatal mice and human cord blood have distinctive immunosuppressive properties. The production of innate immune protective cytokines by adult cells is diminished after transfer to neonatal mice or after co-culture with neonatal splenocytes. Neonatal CD71(+) cells express the enzyme arginase-2, and arginase activity is essential for the immunosuppressive properties of these cells because molecular inhibition of this enzyme or supplementation with L-arginine overrides immunosuppression. In addition, the ablation of CD71(+) cells in neonatal mice, or the decline in number of these cells as postnatal development progresses parallels the loss of suppression, and restored resistance to the perinatal pathogens Listeria monocytogenes and Escherichia coli. However, CD71(+) cell-mediated susceptibility to infection is counterbalanced by CD71(+) cell-mediated protection against aberrant immune cell activation in the intestine, where colonization with commensal microorganisms occurs swiftly after parturition. Conversely, circumventing such colonization by using antimicrobials or gnotobiotic germ-free mice overrides these protective benefits. Thus, CD71(+) cells quench the excessive inflammation induced by abrupt colonization with commensal microorganisms after parturition. This finding challenges the idea that the susceptibility of neonates to infection reflects immune-cell-intrinsic defects and instead highlights processes that are developmentally more essential and inadvertently mitigate innate immune protection. We anticipate that these results will spark renewed investigation into the need for immunosuppression in neonates, as well as improved strategies for augmenting host defence in this vulnerable population.

Guanylate cyclase C deficiency causes severe inflammation in a murine model of spontaneous colitis.

BACKGROUND: Guanylate Cyclase C (GC-C; Gucy2c) is a transmembrane receptor expressed in intestinal epithelial cells. Activation of GC-C by its secreted ligand guanylin stimulates intestinal fluid secretion. Familial mutations in GC-C cause chronic diarrheal disease or constipation and are associated with intestinal inflammation and infection. Here, we investigated the impact of GC-C activity on mucosal immune responses. METHODS: We utilized intraperitoneal injection of lipopolysaccharide to elicit a systemic cytokine challenge and then measured pro-inflammatory gene expression in colonic mucosa. GC-C(+/+) and GC-C(-/-) mice were bred with interleukin (IL)-10 deficient animals and colonic inflammation were assessed. Immune cell influx and cytokine/chemokine expression was measured in the colon of wildtype, IL-10(-/-), GC-C(+/+)IL-10(-/-) and GC-C(-/-)IL-10(-/-) mice. GC-C and guanylin production were examined in the colon of these animals and in a cytokine-treated colon epithelial cell line. RESULTS: Relative to GC-C(+/+) animals, intraperitoneal lipopolysaccharide injection into GC-C(-/-) mice increased proinflammatory gene expression in both whole colon tissue and in partially purified colonocyte isolations. Spontaneous colitis in GC-C(-/-)IL-10(-/-) animals was significantly more severe relative to GC-C(+/+)IL-10(-/-) mice. Unlike GC-C(+/+)IL-10(-/-) controls, colon pathology in GC-C(-/-)IL-10(-/-) animals was apparent at an early age and was characterized by severely altered mucosal architecture, crypt abscesses, and hyperplastic subepithelial lesions. F4/80 and myeloperoxidase positive cells as well as proinflammatory gene expression were elevated in GC-C(-/-)IL-10(-/-) mucosa relative to control animals. Guanylin was diminished early in colitis in vivo and tumor necrosis factor α suppressed guanylin mRNA and protein in intestinal goblet cell-like HT29-18-N2 cells. CONCLUSIONS: The GC-C signaling pathway blunts colonic mucosal inflammation that is initiated by systemic cytokine burst or loss of mucosal immune cell immunosuppression. These data as well as the apparent intestinal inflammation in human GC-C mutant kindred underscore the importance of GC-C in regulating the response to injury and inflammation within the gut.

Guanylate cyclase C limits systemic dissemination of a murine enteric pathogen.

BACKGROUND: Guanylate Cyclase C (GC-C) is an apically-oriented transmembrane receptor that is expressed on epithelial cells of the intestine. Activation of GC-C by the endogenous ligands guanylin or uroguanylin elevates intracellular cGMP and is implicated in intestinal ion secretion, cell proliferation, apoptosis, intestinal barrier function, as well as the susceptibility of the intestine to inflammation. Our aim was to determine if GC-C is required for host defense during infection by the murine enteric pathogen Citrobacter rodentium of the family Enterobacteriacea. METHODS: GC-C+/+ control mice or those having GC-C genetically ablated (GC-C-/-) were administered C. rodentium by orogastric gavage and analyzed at multiple time points up to post-infection day 20. Commensal bacteria were characterized in uninfected GC-C+/+ and GC-C-/- mice using 16S rRNA PCR analysis. RESULTS: GC-C-/- mice had an increase in C. rodentium bacterial load in stool relative to GC-C+/+. C. rodentium infection strongly decreased guanylin expression in GC-C+/+ mice and, to an even greater degree, in GC-C-/- animals. Fluorescent tracer studies indicated that mice lacking GC-C, unlike GC-C+/+ animals, had a substantial loss of intestinal barrier function early in the course of infection. Epithelial cell apoptosis was significantly increased in GC-C-/- mice following 10 days of infection and this was associated with increased frequency and numbers of C. rodentium translocation out of the intestine. Infection led to significant liver histopathology in GC-C-/- mice as well as lymphocyte infiltration and elevated cytokine and chemokine expression. Relative to naïve GC-C+/+ mice, the commensal microflora load in uninfected GC-C-/- mice was decreased and bacterial composition was imbalanced and included outgrowth of the Enterobacteriacea family. CONCLUSIONS: This work demonstrates the novel finding that GC-C signaling is an essential component of host defense during murine enteric infection by reducing bacterial load and preventing systemic dissemination of attaching/effacing-lesion forming bacterial pathogens such as C. rodentium.

Intestinal CCL11 and eosinophilic inflammation is regulated by myeloid cell-specific RelA/p65 in mice.

In inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs), particularly ulcerative colitis, intestinal macrophages (MΦs), eosinophils, and the eosinophil-selective chemokine CCL11, have been associated with disease pathogenesis. MΦs, a source of CCL11, have been reported to be of a mixed classical (NF-κB-mediated) and alternatively activated (STAT-6-mediated) phenotype. The importance of NF-κB and STAT-6 pathways to the intestinal MΦ/CCL11 response and eosinophilic inflammation in the histopathology of experimental colitis is not yet understood. Our gene array analyses demonstrated elevated STAT-6- and NF-κB-dependent genes in pediatric ulcerative colitis colonic biopsies. Dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) exposure induced STAT-6 and NF-κB activation in mouse intestinal F4/80(+)CD11b(+)Ly6C(hi) (inflammatory) MΦs. DSS-induced CCL11 expression, eosinophilic inflammation, and histopathology were attenuated in RelA/p65(Δmye) mice, but not in the absence of STAT-6. Deletion of p65 in myeloid cells did not affect inflammatory MΦ recruitment or alter apoptosis, but did attenuate LPS-induced cytokine production (IL-6) and Ccl11 expression in purified F4/80(+)CD11b(+)Ly6C(hi) inflammatory MΦs. Molecular and cellular analyses revealed a link between expression of calprotectin (S100a8/S100a9), Ccl11 expression, and eosinophil numbers in the DSS-treated colon. In vitro studies of bone marrow-derived MΦs showed calprotectin-induced CCL11 production via a p65-dependent mechanism. Our results indicate that myeloid cell-specific NF-κB-dependent pathways play an unexpected role in CCL11 expression and maintenance of eosinophilic inflammation in experimental colitis. These data indicate that targeting myeloid cells and NF-κB-dependent pathways may be of therapeutic benefit for the treatment of eosinophilic inflammation and histopathology in IBD.