Factors associated with participation in a campaign of mass treatment against lymphatic filariasis, in Leogane, Haiti.

In October 2000, to interrupt transmission of Wuchereria bancrofti, an intense health-education campaign followed by a mass drug administration (MDA) with diethylcarbamazine and albendazole was undertaken in Leogane, Haiti. Three months after the MDA, which was the first in the study area, a knowledge-attitude-practice (KAP) survey, with a cluster-sample design and probability sampling, was undertaken, to determine the existing knowledge of the local residents, their attitudes toward the MDA, and the possible reasons for non-compliance. Questionnaire-based interviews were used to explore the KAP of 304 subjects (one randomly chosen resident aged > 14 years from each selected household) in 33 communities. Most (93%) of the interviewees were aware of filariasis and 72% knew at least one clinical sign of the disease. Awareness of the MDA was high (91%). The most frequently mentioned sources of information were other people (56%) and radio announcements (33%). More than 80% of the respondents encouraged other people to take the drugs distributed in the MDA and 63% had been treated. The primary reasons given for failing to take the drugs were absenteeism during the distribution (17%), use of contraceptive drugs (12%) and pregnancy (11%). In a multivariate analysis, being male [odds ratio (OR) = 3.3; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.5-7.4], knowing that a mosquito transmits the disease (OR = 2.6; CI = 1.2-5.4), and having learned about the MDA through posters and banners (OR = 2.9; CI = 1.2-7.5) were found to be positively associated with taking the drugs. Information from such post-treatment surveys should be useful in developing better health communication for subsequent MDA.

Haiti: absence of dengue hemorrhagic fever despite hyperendemic dengue virus transmission.

In 1994-1996, 185 strains of dengue (DEN) virus types 1, 2, and 4 were recovered from febrile United States and other United Nations military personnel in Haiti. We wondered whether risk factors for dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) existed and, if so, were DHF cases occurring among Haitian children. Dengue transmission rates were studied in 210 school children (6-13 years old) resident in Carrefour Borough, Port-au-Prince, Haiti. When sera were tested for plaque-reduction neutralizing antibodies to DEN 1-4 viruses, nearly 85% had antibodies to two or more DEN serotypes. The annual transmission rate was estimated at 30%, a rate observed in countries endemic for DHE Haitian DEN 2 isolates were genotype I, which are repeatedly associated with DHF cases in Southeast Asia and American regions. Despite positive virologic pre-conditions, DHF cases were not recorded by experienced Port-au-Prince pediatricians. These observations, which are reminiscent of those in Africa, provide further evidence of a dengue resistance gene in black populations.

Short report: documentation of iodine deficiency in Haitian schoolchildren: implication for lymphatic filariasis elimination in Haiti.

In this study we documented unexpected moderate-to-severe iodine deficiency in Haitian schoolchildren although they live in a coastal community where presumably they have access to iodine-containing seafood. This fact combined with the lack of an iodized salt supply and endemic lymphatic filariasis makes community distribution of diethylcarbamazine-fortified, iodized salt an attractive strategy for elimination of lymphatic filariasis and iodine deficiency disorders in this area of Haiti. Combining lymphatic filariasis elimination with other public health interventions is one strategy to increase its public health benefit and maximize the impact of limited public health resources.

A community-based trial for the control of lymphatic filariasis and iodine deficiency using salt fortified with diethylcarbamazine and iodine.

To evaluate the effectiveness of salt fortified with diethylcarbamazine (DEC) and iodine for elimination of Bancroftian filariasis and iodine deficiency, all consenting residents of Miton, Haiti (n = 1,932) were given salt fortified with 0.25% diethylcarbamazine and 25 ppm of iodine for one year. Wuchereria bancrofti microfilaria prevalence and intensity, antigenemia, and urinary iodine were measured before and one year after salt distribution began. To measure the effect of DEC-fortified salt on adult worm motility, 15 microfilaria-positive men were examined by ultrasound of the scrotal area. Entomologic surveys were conducted to determine the proportion of W. bancrofti-infected Culex quinquefasciatus. After one year of treatment, the prevalence and intensity of microfilaremia were both reduced by more than 95%, while antigenemia levels were reduced by 60%. The motility of adult worms, as detected by ultrasound, was decreased, but not significantly, by DEC-fortified salt. The proportion of vector mosquitoes carrying infective stage larvae decreased significantly from 2.3% in the nine months before the intervention to 0.2% in the last three-month follow-up period. Iodine deficiency, which had been moderate to severe, was eliminated after one year of iodized salt consumption. The DEC-fortified salt was well accepted by the community and reduced microfilaremia and transmission to low levels in the absence of reported side effects. Based on these results, salt cofortified with DEC and iodine should be considered as a concurrent intervention for lymphatic filariasis and iodine deficiency elimination programs.

Assessment of combined ivermectin and albendazole for treatment of intestinal helminth and Wuchereria bancrofti infections in Haitian schoolchildren.

This randomized, placebo-controlled trial investigated the efficacy and nutritional benefit of combining chemotherapeutic treatment for intestinal helminths (albendazole) and lymphatic filariasis (ivermectin). Children were infected with Ascaris (29.2%), Trichuris (42.2%), and hookworm (6.9%), with 54.7% of children having one or more of these parasites. Wuchereria bancrofti microfilaria were found in 13.3% of the children. Children were randomly assigned to treatment with placebo, albendazole, ivermectin, or combined therapy. Combination treatment reduced the prevalence of Trichuris infections significantly more than either drug alone. Combination therapy also significantly reduced the prevalence and density of W. bancrofti microfilaremia compared with placebo or ivermectin alone. Only combination therapy resulted in significantly greater gains in height (hookworm-infected children) or weight (Trichuris-infected children) compared with the placebo group. Combined albendazole and ivermectin was a more efficacious treatment for intestinal helminth and W. bancrofti infections in children and resulted in nutritional benefits not found with either drug alone.

Cyclospora cayetanensis infections in Haiti: a common occurrence in the absence of watery diarrhea.

Stool samples from a population-based cohort of mothers and children living in Leogane, Haiti were tested for Cyclospora cayetanensis from January 1997 through January 1998. Data on gastrointestinal symptoms were also collected. During the winter months of January to March, the infection was detected in 15-20% of the persons sampled. Most infections did not appear to be causing diarrhea and most infected persons had few oocysts detectable in concentrates of stool. The infection appears to have marked seasonality, with highest rates during the driest and coolest time of the year. It may be that in this tropical setting, high summer temperature is the critical environmental factor that influences the seasonality of infection. This study demonstrates that Cyclospora infections in Haiti are common in the general population.

Longitudinal analysis of the development of filarial infection and antifilarial immunity in a cohort of Haitian children.

Longitudinal studies are being conducted in Leogane, Haiti to investigate the relationship between acquisition of filarial infection and development of antifilarial immunity as well as the impact of maternal infection on this relationship. Children (0-24 months of age) residing in Leogane were enrolled and were examined periodically to monitor parasitologic status and to collect serum for antigen and antifilarial antibody determinations. To examine the development of filarial antigenemia and antifilarial antibody responses in this cohort, serum samples were selected from a cross section of the population at two (n = 82) and four years of age (n = 76). Antigen prevalence increased from 6% among two-year-olds to more than 30% among four-year-olds, but in only one four-year-old child were microfilaria detected in a 20-microl smear. The proportion of antigen-positive children born to antigen-positive mothers was higher than the proportion of antigen-positive children born to antigen-negative mothers (9.8% versus 0% for two-year-olds; P = 0.15; and 39.6% versus 22.7% for four-year-olds; P = 0.18). Antifilarial IgG4 levels were significantly higher among antigen-positive children at both two and four years of age (P < 0.001). In analyses of paired samples, antifilarial IgG4 responses increased significantly more among children who acquired infection by four years of age than among children who remained antigen negative, whereas antifilarial IgG1 and IgG2 responses changed equally for antigen-positive and -negative children. Antifilarial antibody levels were not influenced by maternal infection status, but were significantly influenced by age, antigen status, and the neighborhood within the community. These results provide evidence that children acquire infection early in life and suggest that antifilarial antibody responses may peak in early childhood.

Randomised placebo-controlled comparison of ivermectin and albendazole alone and in combination for Wuchereria bancrofti microfilaraemia in Haitian children.

BACKGROUND: Lymphatic filariasis and intestinal helminth infections are important disorders in tropical areas. Periodic treatment with albendazole is now used in many school-based intestinal helminth-control programmes. However, few such programmes exist for lymphatic filariasis, despite evidence that single-dose treatment with ivermectin can greatly reduce the concentration of Wuchereria bancrofti microfilariae in the blood for months to years. We aimed to assess the potential for school-based control of lymphatic filariasis by investigating the efficacy and tolerability or combined ivermectin and albendazole in Haitian schoolchildren. METHODS: In January, 1996, we collected 832 20 microL capillary blood samples for inclusion in a randomised controlled study from children aged 5-11 years, and examined them by microscopy for W bancrofti microfilariae. Infected children were randomly assigned treatment with placebo (n = 29), a single 200-400 micrograms/kg dose of ivermectin (mean, 273 micrograms/kg, n = 28), 400 mg albendazole (n = 29), or a combination of 200-400 micrograms/kg ivermectin and 400 mg albendazole (n = 24). Children with high concentrations of microfilariae in the blood were admitted to hospital and adverse reactions were monitored for 3-5 days, otherwise children were examined at school or during a visit to their home. 4 months after treatment, we examined blood samples again for microfilariae. FINDINGS: 113 microfilaraemic children were enrolled (mean age 7.8 years). 4 months after treatment, the proportion of children who remained positive for microfilariae was significantly lower in the ivermectin plus albendazole group (four [17%]), but there were no significant changes in the other three groups (20 [69%] placebo, 22 [76%] albendazole alone, 17 [61%] ivermectin alone remained positive; p = 0.004). Geometric mean microfilarial concentration decreased from 9.3 to 5.3 per 20 microL blood among children who received placebo; from 15.5 to 1.5 per 20 microL blood among those who received ivermectin only (p = 0.032); from 14.1 to 5.1 per 20 microL blood among those who received albendazole alone; and from 13.7 to 0.3 per 20 microL blood among those who received both ivermectin and albendazole (p = 0.0001). Systemic adverse reactions did not differ significantly between children who received ivermectin alone and those who were treated with ivermectin and albendazole [corrected]. INTERPRETATION: For children with W bancrofti microfilaraemia, combined treatment with ivermectin and albendazole was more effective than treatment with ivermectin only, with no measurable increase in severity of adverse reactions.

PCR-based detection of arboviral RNA from mosquitoes homogenized in detergent.

An improved method for the extraction of viral RNAs was developed to facilitate the reverse transcription (RT)-PCR detection of mosquitoes infected with Western equine encephalitis virus or La Crosse virus. The solubilization method, which uses only EDTA and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) followed by dilution of sample, allows accurate viral detection through the use of random hexamers for the RT followed by specific primers for the PCR. Identities of the reaction products were confirmed either by sequencing or restriction endonuclease digestion. Previous methods for the extraction of RNA for the coupled RT-PCR depended on combinations of guanidinium isothiocyanate, acid phenol, detergents and multiple centrifugations. Ideally, routine detection of viral RNAs for diagnostic purposes should bypass many of the above steps, while still providing a sensitive assay. Our level of detection is 1 infected mosquito in a group of 100.

Transmission of La Crosse virus by four strains of Aedes albopictus to and from the eastern chipmunk (Tamias striatus).

Eastern chipmunks were successfully infected with La Crosse virus by bites of 3 New World strains of Aedes albopictus infected orally or transovarially. The virus was subsequently passed from the chipmunks to Ae. albopictus, POTOSI strain, and Ae. triseriatus. The chipmunks developed viremias of 1-4 days duration and antibody titers were similar in intensity and duration to those reported in chipmunks infected by Ae. triseriatus. After feeding on viremic chipmunks, Ae. albopictus became infected and transmitted La Crosse virus at rates similar to the native vector, Ae. triseriatus. Aedes albopictus transmitted La Crosse virus transovarially to first gonotrophic cycle offspring.