Polysaccharides in fruits: Biological activities, structures, and structure-activity relationships and influencing factors-A review.

Fruits are a rich source of polysaccharides, and an increasing number of studies have shown that polysaccharides from fruits have a wide range of biological functions. Here, we thoroughly review recent advances in the study of the bioactivities, structures, and structure-activity relationships of fruit polysaccharides, especially highlighting the structure-activity influencing factors such as extraction methods and chemical modifications. Different extraction methods cause differences in the primary structures of polysaccharides, which in turn lead to different polysaccharide biological activities. Differences in the degree of modification, molecular weight, substitution position, and chain conformation caused by chemical modification can all affect the biological activities of fruit polysaccharides. Furthermore, we summarize the applications of fruit polysaccharides in the fields of pharmacy and medicine, foods, cosmetics, and materials. The challenges and perspectives for fruit polysaccharide research are also discussed.

Metabolome and Transcriptome Analysis Revealed the Basis of the Difference in Antioxidant Capacity in Different Tissues of Citrus reticulata 'Ponkan'.

Citrus is an important type of fruit, with antioxidant bioactivity. However, the variations in the antioxidant ability of different tissues in citrus and its metabolic and molecular basis remain unclear. Here, we assessed the antioxidant capacities of 12 tissues from Citrus reticulata 'Ponkan', finding that young leaves and root exhibited the strongest antioxidant capacity. Secondary metabolites accumulated differentially in parts of the citrus plant, of which flavonoids were enriched in stem, leaf, and flavedo; phenolic acids were enriched in the albedo, while coumarins were enriched in the root, potentially explaining the higher antioxidant capacities of these tissues. The spatially specific accumulation of metabolites was related to the expression levels of biosynthesis-related genes such as chalcone synthase (CHS), chalcone isomerase (CHI), flavone synthase (FNS), O-methyltransferase (OMT), flavonoid-3'-hydroxylase (F3'H), flavonoid-6/8-hydroxylase (F6/8H), p-coumaroyl CoA 2'-hydroxylase (C2'H), and prenyltransferase (PT), among others, in the phenylpropane pathway. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) identified modules associated with flavonoids and coumarin content, among which we identified an OMT involved in coumarin O-methylation, and related transcription factors were predicted. Our study identifies key genes and metabolites influencing the antioxidant capacity of citrus, which could contribute to the enhanced understanding and utilization of bioactive citrus components.

Phenolics and Terpenoids Profiling in Diverse Loquat Fruit Varieties and Systematic Assessment of Their Mitigation of Alcohol-Induced Oxidative Stress.

To compare and investigate the phenolic compounds in the peel and flesh of loquat (Eriobotrya japonica) and evaluate their ability to protect against alcohol-induced liver oxidative stress, we employed a combination of ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) to qualitatively and quantitatively analyze 22 phenolics and 2 terpenoid compounds in loquat peel and flesh extracts (extraction with 95% ethanol). Among these, six compounds were identified for the first time in loquat, revealing distinct distribution patterns based on variety and tissue. Various chemical models, such as DPPH, FRAP, ORAC, and ABTS, were used to assess free radical scavenging and metal ion reduction capabilities. The results indicate that peel extracts exhibited higher antioxidant capacity compared with flesh extracts. Using a normal mouse liver cell line, AML-12, we explored the protective effects of loquat extracts and individual compounds against ethanol-induced oxidative stress. The findings demonstrate the enhanced cell viability and the induction of antioxidant enzyme activity through the modulation of Nrf2 and Keap1 gene expression. In a C57/BL6 mouse model of alcohol-induced liver damage, loquat extract was found to alleviate liver injury induced by alcohol. The restoration of perturbed serum liver health indicators underscored the efficacy of loquat extract in reclaiming equilibrium. The culmination of these findings significantly bolsters the foundational knowledge necessary to explore the utilization of loquat fruit extract in the creation of health-focused products.

Functional characterization of two flavone synthase II members in citrus.

Polymethoxylated flavones (PMFs), the main form of flavones in citrus, are derived from the flavone branch of the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway. Flavone synthases (FNSs) are enzymes that catalyze the synthesis of flavones from flavanones. However, the FNS in citrus has not been characterized yet. Here, we identified two type II FNSs, designated CitFNSII-1 and CitFNSII-2, based on phylogenetics and transcriptome analysis. Both recombinant CitFNSII-1 and CitFNSII-2 proteins directly converted naringenin, pinocembrin, and liquiritigenin to the corresponding flavones in yeast. In addition, transient overexpression of CitFNSII-1 and CitFNSII-2, respectively, in citrus peel significantly enhanced the accumulation of total PMFs, while virus-induced CitFNSII-1 and CitFNSII-2 genes silencing simultaneously significantly reduced the expression levels of both genes and total PMF content in citrus seedlings. CitFNSII-1 and CitFNSII-2 presented distinct expression patterns in different cultivars as well as different developmental stages. Methyl salicylate (MeSA) treatment reduced the CitFNSII-2 expression as well as the PMFs content in the peel of Citrus sinensis fruit but did not affect the CitFNSII-1 expression. These results indicated that both CitFNSII-1 and CitFNSII-2 participated in the flavone biosynthesis in citrus while the regulatory mechanism governing their expression might be specific. Our findings improved the understanding of the PMFs biosynthesis pathway in citrus and laid the foundation for further investigation on flavone synthesis regulation.

Polymethoxyflavone-Enriched Fraction from Ougan (Citrus reticulata cv. Suavissima) Attenuated Diabetes and Modulated Gut Microbiota in Diabetic KK-Ay Mice.

Diabetes mellitus is a serious, chronic disease worldwide; yet it is largely preventable through physical activity and healthy diets. Ougan (Citrus reticulata cv. Suavissima) is a characteristic citrus variety rich in polymethoxyflavones. In the present study, the anti-diabetic effects of the polymethoxyflavone-enriched fraction from Ougan (OG-PMFs) were investigated. Diabetic KK-Ay mice were supplemented with different doses of OG-PMFs for 5 weeks. Our results demonstrated that OG-PMFs exhibited robust protective effects against diabetes symptoms in KK-Ay mice. The potential mechanisms may partially be attributed to the restoration of hepatic GLUT2 and catalase expression. Notably, OG-PMF administration significantly altered the gut microbiota composition in diabetic KK-Ay, indicated by the suppression of metabolic disease-associated genera Desulfovibrio, Lachnoclostridium, Enterorhabdus, and Ralstonia, implying that the gut microbiota might be another target for OG-PMFs to show effects. Taken together, our results provided a supplementation for the metabolic-protective effects of PMFs and highlighted that OG-PMFs hold great potential to be developed as a functional food ingredient.

Preparation of Neohesperidin-Taro Starch Complex as a Novel Approach to Modulate the Physicochemical Properties, Structure and In Vitro Digestibility.

Neohesperidin (NH), a natural flavonoid, exerts multiple actions, such as antioxidant, antiviral, antiallergic, vasoprotective, anticarcinogenic and anti-inflammatory effects, as well as inhibition of tumor progression. In this study, the NH-taro starch complex is prepared, and the effects of NH complexation on the physicochemical properties, structure and in vitro digestibility of taro starch (TS) are investigated. Results showed that NH complexation significantly affected starch gelatinization temperatures and reduced its enthalpy value (ΔH). The addition of NH increased the viscosity and thickening of taro starch, facilitating shearing and thinning. NH binds to TS via hydrogen bonds and promotes the formation of certain crystalline regions in taro starch. SEM images revealed that the surface of NH-TS complexes became looser with the increasing addition of NH. The digestibility results demonstrated that the increase in NH (from 0.1% to 1.1%, weight based on starch) could raise RS (resistant starch) from 21.66% to 27.75% and reduce RDS (rapidly digestible starch) from 33.51% to 26.76% in taro starch. Our work provided a theoretical reference for the NH-taro starch complex's modification of physicochemical properties and in vitro digestibility with potential in food and non-food applications.

Synergistic actions of three MYB transcription factors underpins the high accumulation of myricetin in Morella rubra.

Flavonols are health-promoting bioactive compounds important for human nutrition, health, and plant defense. The transcriptional regulation of kaempferol and quercetin biosynthesis has been studied extensively, while little is known about the regulatory mechanisms underlying myricetin biosynthesis, which has strong antioxidant, anticancer, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory activities. In this study, the flavonol-specific MrMYB12 in Morella rubra preferred activating the promoter of flavonol synthase 2 (MrFLS2) (6.4-fold) rather than MrFLS1 (1.4-fold) and upregulated quercetin biosynthesis. Furthermore, two SG44 R2R3-MYB members, MrMYB5 and MrMYB5L, were identified by yeast one-hybrid library screening using the promoter of flavonoid 3',5'-hydroxylase (MrF3'5'H), and transcript levels of these R2R3-MYBs were correlated with accumulation of myricetin derivatives during leaf development. Dual-luciferase and electrophoretic mobility shift assays demonstrated that both MrMYB5 and MrMYB5L could bind directly to MYB recognition sequence elements in promoters of MrF3'5'H or MrFLS1 and activate their expression. Protein-protein interactions of MrMYB5 or MrMYB5L with MrbHLH2 were confirmed by yeast two-hybrid and bimolecular fluorescence complementation assays. MrMYB5L-MrbHLH2 showed much higher synergistic activation of MrF3'5'H or MrFLS1 promoters than MrMYB5-MrbHLH2. Studies with Arabidopsis thaliana homologs AtMYB5 and AtTT8 indicated that similar synergistic regulatory effects occur with promoters of MrF3'5'H or MrFLS1. Transient overexpression of MrMYB5L-MrbHLH2 in Nicotiana benthamiana induced a higher accumulation of myricetin derivatives (57.70 µg g-1 FW) than MrMYB5-MrbHLH2 (7.43 µg g-1 FW) when MrMYB12 was coexpressed with them. This study reveals a novel transcriptional mechanism regulating myricetin biosynthesis with the potential use for future metabolic engineering of health-promoting flavonols.

A metabolic perspective of selection for fruit quality related to apple domestication and improvement.

BACKGROUND: Apple is an economically important fruit crop. Changes in metabolism accompanying human-guided evolution can be revealed using a multiomics approach. We perform genome-wide metabolic analysis of apple fruits collected from 292 wild and cultivated accessions representing various consumption types. RESULTS: We find decreased amounts of certain metabolites, including tannins, organic acids, phenolic acids, and flavonoids as the wild accessions transition to cultivated apples, while lysolipids increase in the "Golden Delicious" to "Ralls Janet" pedigree, suggesting better storage. We identify a total of 222,877 significant single-nucleotide polymorphisms that are associated with 2205 apple metabolites. Investigation of a region from 2.84 to 5.01 Mb on chromosome 16 containing co-mapping regions for tannins, organic acids, phenolic acids, and flavonoids indicates the importance of these metabolites for fruit quality and nutrition during breeding. The tannin and acidity-related genes Myb9-like and PH4 are mapped closely to fruit weight locus fw1 from 3.41 to 3.76 Mb on chromosome 15, a region under selection during domestication. Lysophosphatidylethanolamine (LPE) 18:1, which is suppressed by fatty acid desaturase-2 (FAD2), is positively correlated to fruit firmness. We find the fruit weight is negatively correlated with salicylic acid and abscisic acid levels. Further functional assays demonstrate regulation of these hormone levels by NAC-like activated by Apetala3/Pistillata (NAP) and ATP binding cassette G25 (ABCG25), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides a metabolic perspective for selection on fruit quality during domestication and improvement, which is a valuable resource for investigating mechanisms controlling apple metabolite content and quality.

A multifunctional true caffeoyl coenzyme A O-methyltransferase enzyme participates in the biosynthesis of polymethoxylated flavones in citrus.

Polymethoxylated flavones (PMFs) have received extensive attention due to their abundant bioactivities. Citrus peels specifically accumulate abundant PMFs, and methylation modification is a key step in PMF biosynthesis; however, the function of reported O-methyltransferase (OMT) in citrus is insufficient to elucidate the complete methylation process of PMFs. In this study, we analyzed the accumulation pattern of PMFs in the flavedo of the sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) cultivar "Bingtangcheng" at different developmental stages. We found that accumulation of PMFs was completed at the early stage of fruit development (60-d after flowering). Furthermore, we characterized a true caffeoyl-CoA O-methyltransferase (named CsCCoAOMT1) from C. sinensis. Functional analysis in vitro showed that CsCCoAOMT1 preferred flavonoids to caffeoyl-CoA and esculetin. This enzyme efficiently methylated the 6-, 7- 8-, and 3'-OH of a wide array of flavonoids with vicinal hydroxyl groups with a strong preference for quercetin (flavonol) and flavones. The transient overexpression and virus-induced gene silencing experiments verified that CsCCoAOMT1 could promote the accumulation of PMFs in citrus. These results reveal the function of true CCoAOMTs and indicate that CsCCoAOMT1 is a highly efficient multifunctional O-methyltransferase involved in the biosynthesis of PMFs in citrus.

Detection and classification of volatile compounds emitted by three fungi-infected citrus fruit using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.

Citrus fruit produced some characteristic volatile compounds when infected by fungi compared with the healthy fruit. In the present study, volatile metabolites of postharvest citrus fruit with three different diseases including stem-end rot, blue mold and green mold were detected. Multivariate analysis such as principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) were employed to classify the volatile compounds between the infected and non-infected citrus fruit. The results indicated that volatile compounds of unrotten, unrotten-rotten junction, and rotten tissues were successfully classified. Importantly, eight volatile compounds as biomarkers for stem-end rot and one biomarker for green mold of citrus were screened to discriminate the infected citrus fruit. This study offers the application potential of odor profiling of volatile compounds for detecting the fungi infection in postharvest citrus fruit.

Genome-wide analysis of cytochrome P450 genes in Citrus clementina and characterization of a CYP gene encoding flavonoid 3'-hydroxylase.

Cytochrome P450s (CYPs) are the largest family of enzymes in plant and play multifarious roles in development and defense but the available information about the CYP superfamily in citrus is very limited. Here we provide a comprehensive genome-wide analysis of the CYP superfamily in Citrus clementina genome, identifying 301 CYP genes grouped into ten clans and 49 families. The characteristics of both gene structures and motif compositions strongly supported the reliability of the phylogenetic relationship. Duplication analysis indicated that tandem duplication was the major driving force of expansion for this superfamily. Promoter analysis revealed numerous cis-acting elements related to various responsiveness. RNA-seq data elucidated their expression patterns in citrus fruit peel both during development and in response to UV-B. Furthermore, we characterize a UV-B-induced CYP gene (Ciclev10019637m, designated CitF3'H) as a flavonoid 3'-hydroxylase for the first time. CitF3'H catalyzed numerous flavonoids and favored naringenin in yeast assays. Virus-induced silencing of CitF3'H in citrus seedlings significantly reduced the levels of 3'-hydroxylated flavonoids and their derivatives. These results together with the endoplasmic reticulum-localization of CitF3'H in plant suggest that this enzyme is responsible for the biosynthesis of 3'-hydroxylated flavonoids in citrus. Taken together, our findings provide extensive information about the CYP superfamily in citrus and contribute to further functional verification.

Anthocyanins distribution, transcriptional regulation, epigenetic and post-translational modification in fruits.

Anthocyanins have indispensable functions in plant resistance, human health, and fruit coloring, which arouse people's favorite. It has been reported that anthocyanins are widely found in fruits, and can be affected by numerous factors. In this review, we systematically summarize anthocyanin functions, classifications, distributions, biosynthesis, decoration, transportation, transcriptional regulation, DNA methylation, and post-translational regulation in fruits.

Nobiletin as a chemopreventive natural product against cancer, a comprehensive review.

As a leading cause of death, second only to heart disease, cancer has always been one of the burning topics in medical research. When targeting multiple signal pathways in tumorigenesis chemoprevention, using natural or synthetic anti-cancer drugs is a vital strategy to reduce cancer damage. However, toxic effects, multidrug resistance (MDR) as well as cancer stem cells (CSCs) all prominently limited the clinical application of conventional anticancer drugs. With low side effects, strong biological activity, unique mechanism, and wide range of targets, natural products derived from plants are considered significant sources for new drug development. Nobiletin is one of the most attractive compounds, a unique flavonoid primarily isolated from the peel of citrus fruits. Numerous studies in vitro and in vivo have suggested that nobiletin and its derivatives possess the eminent potential to become effective cancer chemoprevention agents through various cellular and molecular levels. This article aims to comprehensively review the anticancer efficacy and specific mechanisms of nobiletin, enhancing our understanding of its chemoprevention properties and providing the latest research findings. At the end of this review, we also give some discussion and future perspectives regarding the challenges and opportunities in nobiletin efficient exploitation.

Genome-wide analysis of UDP-glycosyltransferase gene family and identification of members involved in flavonoid glucosylation in Chinese bayberry (Morella rubra).

Glycosylation was catalyzed by UDP-glycosyltransferase (UGT) and was important for enriching diversity of flavonoids. Chinese bayberry (Morella rubra) has significant nutritional and medical values because of diverse natural flavonoid glycosides. However, information of UGT gene family was quite limited in M. rubra. In the present study, a total of 152 MrUGT genes clustered into 13 groups were identified in M. rubra genome. Among them, 139 MrUGT genes were marked on eight chromosomes and 13 members located on unmapped scaffolds. Gene duplication analysis indicated that expansion of MrUGT gene family was mainly forced by tandem and proximal duplication events. Gene expression patterns in different tissues and under UV-B treatment were analyzed by transcriptome. Cyanidin 3-O-glucoside (C3Glc) and quercetin 3-O-glucoside (Q3Glc) were two main flavonoid glucosides accumulated in M. rubra. UV-B treatment significantly induced C3Glc and Q3Glc accumulation in fruit. Based on comprehensively analysis of transcriptomic data and phylogenetic homology together with flavonoid accumulation patterns, MrUFGT (MrUGT78A26) and MrUGT72B67 were identified as UDP-glucosyltransferases. MrUFGT was mainly involved in C3Glc and Q3Glc accumulation in fruit, while MrUGT72B67 was mainly involved in Q3Glc accumulation in leaves and flowers. Gln375 and Gln391 were identified as important amino acids for glucosyl transfer activity of MrUFGT and MrUGT72B67 by site-directed mutagenesis, respectively. Transient expression in Nicotiana benthamiana tested the function of MrUFGT and MrUGT72B67 as glucosyltransferases. The present study provided valuable source for identification of functional UGTs involved in secondary metabolites biosynthesis in M. rubra.

Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside extracted from the Chinese bayberry (Myrica rubra Sieb. et Zucc.) alleviates antibiotic-associated diarrhea by regulating gut microbiota and down-regulating inflammatory factors in NF-κB pathway.

Chinese bayberry has been used to treat diarrhea in China for more than 2,000 years, but the mechanism is not clear. Due to the extensive use of antibiotics, antibiotic-associated diarrhea (AAD) is becoming more and more common in clinic, but there is no effective drug for the treatment. The present study aimed to explore the therapeutic effect of Chinese bayberry on AAD for the first time, and explained the underlying mechanism from different aspects. The BALB/c mice model was established by intragastric administration of lincomycin (3 g/kg). Successfully modeled mice were treated with purified water, dried bayberry powder suspension (100 mg/kg), C3G suspension (40 mg/kg) and montmorillonite powder suspension (40 mg/kg), respectively. The changes of body weight, diarrhea index, diarrhea status score were recorded and calculated regularly. 16S rRNA gene sequencing, intestinal immunofluorescence and inflammatory factor detection were further performed. The treatment with dried bayberry powder suspension and C3G suspension could rapidly reduce the diarrhea score and diarrhea index, increase food intake and restore body weight gain. The gut microbiota richness and diversity were significantly increased after dried bayberry powder suspension and C3G suspension treatments, typically decreased bacterial genera Enterococcus and Clostridium senus stricto 1. In addition, intake of Chinese bayberry powder and C3G significantly decreased the level of p65 phosphorylation, and up-regulated the expression of intestinal tight junction protein claudin-1 and ZO-1. Chinese bayberry fruit had the effect of alleviating AAD, and C3G was supposed to play the predominant role. The mechanism was indicated to be related with restoring the homeostasis of gut microbiota, inhibiting the level of harmful bacteria and increasing the abundance of beneficial bacteria, down-regulating TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-12 factors to reduce inflammation, restoring intestinal tight junction proteins and reducing intestinal permeability.

Integrated Physiochemical, Hormonal, and Transcriptomic Analysis Revealed the Underlying Mechanisms for Granulation in Huyou (Citrus changshanensis) Fruit.

Juice sac granulation is a common internal physiological disorder of citrus fruit. In the present study, we compared the physiochemical characteristics and transcriptome profiles of juice sacs in different granulation levels from Huyou fruit (Citrus changshanensis). The accumulation of cell wall components, including the water-soluble pectin, protopectin, cellulose, and lignin, were significantly correlated with the granulation process, resulting in the firmness increase of the juice sac. The in situ labeling of the cell wall components indicated the early accumulation of cellulose and high-methylesterified pectin in the outer layer cells, as well as the late accumulation of lignin in the inner layer cells of the juice sac. Several phytohormones, including auxins, abscisic acids, cytokinins, jasmonic acid, salicylic acid, and/or their metabolites, were positively correlated to the granulation level, indicating an active and complex phytohormones metabolism in the granulation process. Combining the trend analysis by the Mfuzz method and the module-trait correlation analysis by the Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis method, a total of 2940 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were found to be positively correlated with the granulation level. Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment indicated that the selected DEGs were mainly involved in the cell wall organization and biogenesis, cell wall macromolecule metabolic process, carbohydrate metabolic process, and polysaccharide metabolic process. Among these selected genes, those encoding ß-1,4-xylosyltransferase IRX9, cellulose synthase, xyloglucan: xyloglucosyl transferase, xyloglucan galactosyltransferase MUR3, α-1,4-galacturonosyltransferase, expansin, polygalacturonase, pectinesterase, ß-glucosidase, ß-galactosidase, endo-1,3(4)-ß-glucanase, endoglucanase and pectate lyase that required for the biosynthesis or structural modification of cell wall were identified. In addition, NAC, MYB, bHLH, and MADS were the top abundant transcription factors (TFs) families positively correlated with the granulation level, while the LOB was the top abundant TFs family negatively correlated with the granulation level.

Genome-wide identification and expression analysis of MATE gene family in citrus fruit (Citrus clementina).

Multidrug and toxic compound extrusion (MATE) proteins are a class of secondary active multidrug transporters. In plants, this family has significantly expanded and is involved in numerous plant physiological processes. Although MATE proteins have been identified in an increasing number of species, the understanding about this family in citrus remains unclear. In this study, a total of 69 MATE transporters were identified in the citrus genome (Citrus clementina) and classified into four groups by phylogenetic analysis. Tandem and segmental duplication events were the main causes of the citrus MATE family expansion. RNA-seq and qRT-PCR analyses were performed during citrus fruit development. The results indicated that CitMATE genes showed specific expression profiles in citrus peels and flesh at different developmental stages. Combined with the variations of flavonoids and citrate levels in citrus fruit, we suggested that CitMATE43 and CitMATE66 may be involved in the transport process of flavonoids and citrate in citrus fruit, respectively. In addition, two flavonoids positive regulators, CitERF32 and CitERF33, both directly bind to and activated the CitMATE43 promoter. Our results provide comprehensive information on citrus MATE genes and valuable understanding for the flavonoids and citrate metabolism in citrus fruit.

Advances of section drying in citrus fruit: The metabolic changes, mechanisms and prevention methods.

Citrus fruit are consumed worldwide due to their excellent features, such as delicious taste and health-promoting compounds. However, section drying, a physiological disorder of citrus fruit, often occurs both in the preharvest and postharvest storage, causing a significant reduction in fruit quality and consumer acceptance. In this review, section drying of citrus fruit was divided into three types: granulation, vesicle collapse and both above. The main causes, metabolic changes and mechanisms of section drying were discussed, respectively. Furthermore, the prevention methods of section drying in citrus fruit, including preharvest and postharvest methods, were also summarized. Given the significant influence of section drying in citrus fruit production, the mechanisms and prevention methods of section drying are worth further exploration. A better understanding of section drying may provide guidance for the prevention of this disorder and future breeding of citrus fruit.

Evaluation of Antioxidant Capacity and Gut Microbiota Modulatory Effects of Different Kinds of Berries.

Berries are fairly favored by consumers. Phenolic compounds are the major phytochemicals in berries, among which anthocyanins are one of the most studied. Phenolic compounds are reported to have prebiotic-like effects. In the present study, we identified the anthocyanin profiles, evaluated and compared the antioxidant capacities and gut microbiota modulatory effects of nine common berries, namely blackberry, black goji berry, blueberry, mulberry, red Chinese bayberry, raspberry, red goji berry, strawberry and white Chinese bayberry. Anthocyanin profiles were identified by UPLC-Triple-TOF/MS. In vitro antioxidant capacity was evaluated by four chemical assays (DPPH, ABTS, FRAP and ORAC). In vivo antioxidant capacity and gut microbiota modulatory effects evaluation was carried out by treating healthy mice with different berry extracts for two weeks. The results show that most berries could improve internal antioxidant status, reflected by elevated serum or colonic T-AOC, GSH, T-SOD, CAT, and GSH-PX levels, as well as decreased MDA content. All berries significantly altered the gut microbiota composition. The modulatory effects of the berries were much the same, namely by the enrichment of beneficial SCFAs-producing bacteria and the inhibition of potentially harmful bacteria. Our study shed light on the gut microbiota modulatory effect of different berries and may offer consumers useful consumption guidance.

Interrelating Grain Hardness Index of Wheat with Physicochemical and Structural Properties of Starch Extracted Therefrom.

To investigate the physicochemical, structural, and rheological characteristics of starch from wheat cultivars varying in grain hardness index employed in making jiuqu and to interrelate grain hardness index with physicochemical and structural properties of starch. Starch extracted therefrom was investigated for structural and physicochemical properties. Starch granules showed relatively wide granule size distribution; large size granules showed lenticular shapes while medium and small size granules exhibited spherical or irregular shapes. Starch from wheat with a lower grain hardness index exhibited a relatively higher degree of crystallinity. Chain-length profiles of amylopectin showed distinct differences; among the fractions of fa, fb1, fb2, and fb3 representing the weight-based chain-length proportions in amylopectin, the fa fractions ranged from 19.7% to 21.6%, the fb1 fractions ranged from 44.4% to 45.6%, the fb2 fractions ranged from 16.2% to 17.0%, and the fb3 fractions ranged from 16.1% to 18.8%, respectively. To, Tp, Tc, and ∆H of starch ranged from 57.8 to 59.7 °C, 61.9 to 64.2 °C, 67.4 to 69.8 °C, and 11.9 to 12.7 J/g, respectively. Peak viscosity, hot pasting viscosity, cool pasting viscosity, breakdown, and setback of starch ranged from 127 to 221 RVU, 77 to 106 RVU, 217 to 324 RVU, 44 to 116 RVU, and 137 to 218 RVU, respectively. Both G' and G" increased in the frequency range of 0.628 to 125.6 rad/s; the wheat starch gels were more solid-like during the whole range of frequency sweep.