Cultured lymphocytes' mitochondrial genome integrity is not altered by cladribine.

Cladribine tablets are a treatment for multiple sclerosis with effects on lymphocytes, yet its mode of action has not been fully established. Here, we analyzed the effects of cladribine on mitochondrial DNA integrity in lymphocytes. We treated cultured human T-cell lines (CCRF-CEM and Jurkat) with varying concentrations of cladribine to mimic the slow cell depletion observed in treated patients. The CCRF-CEM was more susceptible to cladribine than Jurkat cells. In both cells, mitochondrial protein synthesis, mitochondrial DNA copy number, and mitochondrial cytochrome-c oxidase-I mRNA mutagenesis was not affected by cladribine, while caspase-3 cleavage was detected in Jurkat cells at 100 nM concentration. Cladribine treatment at concentrations up to 10 nM in CCRF-CEM and 100 nM in Jurkat cells did not induce significant increase in mitochondrial DNA mutations. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells from eight multiple sclerosis patients and four controls were cultured with or without an effective dose of cladribine (5 nM). However, we did not find any differences in mitochondrial DNA somatic mutations in lymphocyte subpopulations (CD4+, CD8+, and CD19+) between treated versus nontreated cells. The overall mutation rate was similar in patients and controls. When different lymphocyte subpopulations were compared, greater mitochondrial DNA mutation levels were detected in CD8+ (P = 0.014) and CD4+ (P = 0.038) as compared to CD19+ cells, these differences were independent of cladribine treatment. We conclude that T cells have more detectable mitochondrial DNA mutations than B cells, and cladribine has no detectable mutagenic effect on lymphocyte mitochondrial genome nor does it impair mitochondrial function in human T-cell lines.

Metabolic set points of mammalian neurodevelopment.

The human nervous system matures over a protracted developmental time frame relative to other species. What sets the pace of maturation has remained a mystery. In a recent publication in Science, Iwata et al. unearth critical contributions of mitochondrial metabolism in setting the pace of species-specific corticogenesis.

DGAT1 activity synchronises with mitophagy to protect cells from metabolic rewiring by iron depletion.

Mitophagy removes defective mitochondria via lysosomal elimination. Increased mitophagy coincides with metabolic reprogramming, yet it remains unknown whether mitophagy is a cause or consequence of such state changes. The signalling pathways that integrate with mitophagy to sustain cell and tissue integrity also remain poorly defined. We performed temporal metabolomics on mammalian cells treated with deferiprone, a therapeutic iron chelator that stimulates PINK1/PARKIN-independent mitophagy. Iron depletion profoundly rewired the metabolome, hallmarked by remodelling of lipid metabolism within minutes of treatment. DGAT1-dependent lipid droplet biosynthesis occurred several hours before mitochondrial clearance, with lipid droplets bordering mitochondria upon iron chelation. We demonstrate that DGAT1 inhibition restricts mitophagy in vitro, with impaired lysosomal homeostasis and cell viability. Importantly, genetic depletion of DGAT1 in vivo significantly impaired neuronal mitophagy and locomotor function in Drosophila. Our data define iron depletion as a potent signal that rapidly reshapes metabolism and establishes an unexpected synergy between lipid homeostasis and mitophagy that safeguards cell and tissue integrity.

Emerging roles of ATG7 in human health and disease.

The cardinal stages of macroautophagy are driven by core autophagy-related (ATG) proteins, whose ablation largely abolishes intracellular turnover. Disrupting ATG genes is paradigmatic of studying autophagy deficiency, yet emerging data suggest that ATG proteins have extensive biological importance beyond autophagic elimination. An important example is ATG7, an essential autophagy effector enzyme that in concert with other ATG proteins, also regulates immunity, cell death and protein secretion, and independently regulates the cell cycle and apoptosis. Recently, a direct association between ATG7 dysfunction and disease was established in patients with biallelic ATG7 variants and childhood-onset neuropathology. Moreover, a prodigious body of evidence supports a role for ATG7 in protecting against complex disease states in model organisms, although how dysfunctional ATG7 contributes to manifestation of these diseases, including cancer, neurodegeneration and infection, in humans remains unclear. Here, we systematically review the biological functions of ATG7, discussing the impact of its impairment on signalling pathways and human pathology. Future studies illuminating the molecular relationship between ATG7 dysfunction and disease will expedite therapies for disorders involving ATG7 deficiency and/or impaired autophagy.

Developmental Consequences of Defective ATG7-Mediated Autophagy in Humans.

BACKGROUND: Autophagy is the major intracellular degradation route in mammalian cells. Systemic ablation of core autophagy-related (ATG) genes in mice leads to embryonic or perinatal lethality, and conditional models show neurodegeneration. Impaired autophagy has been associated with a range of complex human diseases, yet congenital autophagy disorders are rare. METHODS: We performed a genetic, clinical, and neuroimaging analysis involving five families. Mechanistic investigations were conducted with the use of patient-derived fibroblasts, skeletal muscle-biopsy specimens, mouse embryonic fibroblasts, and yeast. RESULTS: We found deleterious, recessive variants in human ATG7, a core autophagy-related gene encoding a protein that is indispensable to classical degradative autophagy. Twelve patients from five families with distinct ATG7 variants had complex neurodevelopmental disorders with brain, muscle, and endocrine involvement. Patients had abnormalities of the cerebellum and corpus callosum and various degrees of facial dysmorphism. These patients have survived with impaired autophagic flux arising from a diminishment or absence of ATG7 protein. Although autophagic sequestration was markedly reduced, evidence of basal autophagy was readily identified in fibroblasts and skeletal muscle with loss of ATG7. Complementation of different model systems by deleterious ATG7 variants resulted in poor or absent autophagic function as compared with the reintroduction of wild-type ATG7. CONCLUSIONS: We identified several patients with a neurodevelopmental disorder who have survived with a severe loss or complete absence of ATG7, an essential effector enzyme for autophagy without a known functional paralogue. (Funded by the Wellcome Centre for Mitochondrial Research and others.).

Mitochondrial stress response triggered by defects in protein synthesis quality control.

Mitochondria have a compartmentalized gene expression system dedicated to the synthesis of membrane proteins essential for oxidative phosphorylation. Responsive quality control mechanisms are needed to ensure that aberrant protein synthesis does not disrupt mitochondrial function. Pathogenic mutations that impede the function of the mitochondrial matrix quality control protease complex composed of AFG3L2 and paraplegin cause a multifaceted clinical syndrome. At the cell and molecular level, defects to this quality control complex are defined by impairment to mitochondrial form and function. Here, we establish the etiology of these phenotypes. We show how disruptions to the quality control of mitochondrial protein synthesis trigger a sequential stress response characterized first by OMA1 activation followed by loss of mitochondrial ribosomes and by remodelling of mitochondrial inner membrane ultrastructure. Inhibiting mitochondrial protein synthesis with chloramphenicol completely blocks this stress response. Together, our data establish a mechanism linking major cell biological phenotypes of AFG3L2 pathogenesis and show how modulation of mitochondrial protein synthesis can exert a beneficial effect on organelle homeostasis.

Autophagy in the mammalian nervous system: a primer for neuroscientists.

Autophagy refers to the lysosomal degradation of damaged or superfluous components and is essential for metabolic plasticity and tissue integrity. This evolutionarily conserved process is particularly vital to mammalian post-mitotic cells such as neurons, which face unique logistical challenges and must sustain homoeostasis over decades. Defective autophagy has pathophysiological importance, especially for human neurodegeneration. The present-day definition of autophagy broadly encompasses two distinct yet related phenomena: non-selective and selective autophagy. In this minireview, we focus on established and emerging concepts in the field, paying particular attention to the physiological significance of macroautophagy and the burgeoning world of selective autophagy pathways in the context of the vertebrate nervous system. By highlighting established basics and recent breakthroughs, we aim to provide a useful conceptual framework for neuroscientists interested in autophagy, in addition to autophagy enthusiasts with an eye on the nervous system.

A conserved mammalian mitochondrial isoform of acetyl-CoA carboxylase ACC1 provides the malonyl-CoA essential for mitochondrial biogenesis in tandem with ACSF3.

Mitochondrial fatty acid synthesis (mtFAS) is a highly conserved pathway essential for mitochondrial biogenesis. The mtFAS process is required for mitochondrial respiratory chain assembly and function, synthesis of the lipoic acid cofactor indispensable for the function of several mitochondrial enzyme complexes and essential for embryonic development in mice. Mutations in human mtFAS have been reported to lead to neurodegenerative disease. The source of malonyl-CoA for mtFAS in mammals has remained unclear. We report the identification of a conserved vertebrate mitochondrial isoform of ACC1 expressed from an ACACA transcript splicing variant. A specific knockdown (KD) of the corresponding transcript in mouse cells, or CRISPR/Cas9-mediated inactivation of the putative mitochondrial targeting sequence in human cells, leads to decreased lipoylation and mitochondrial fragmentation. Simultaneous KD of ACSF3, encoding a mitochondrial malonyl-CoA synthetase previously implicated in the mtFAS process, resulted in almost complete ablation of protein lipoylation, indicating that these enzymes have a redundant function in mtFAS. The discovery of a mitochondrial isoform of ACC1 required for lipoic acid synthesis has intriguing consequences for our understanding of mitochondrial disorders, metabolic regulation of mitochondrial biogenesis and cancer.

A novel human leiomyoma tissue derived matrix for cell culture studies.

BACKGROUND: The composition of the matrix molecules is important in in vitro cell culture experiments of e.g. human cancer invasion and vessel formation. Currently, the mouse Engelbreth-Holm-Swarm (EHS) sarcoma-derived products, such as Matrigel®, are the most commonly used tumor microenvironment (TME) mimicking matrices for experimental studies. However, since Matrigel® is non-human in origin, its molecular composition does not accurately simulate human TME. We have previously described a solid 3D organotypic myoma disc invasion assay, which is derived from human uterus benign leiomyoma tumor. Here, we describe the preparation and analyses of a processed, gelatinous leiomyoma matrix, named Myogel. METHODS: A total protein extract, Myogel, was formulated from myoma. The protein contents of Myogel were characterized and its composition and properties compared with a commercial mouse Matrigel®. Myogel was tested and compared to Matrigel® in human cell adhesion, migration, invasion, colony formation, spheroid culture and vessel formation experiments, as well as in a 3D hanging drop video image analysis. RESULTS: We demonstrated that only 34% of Myogel's molecular content was similar to Matrigel®. All test results showed that Myogel was comparable with Matrigel®, and when mixed with low-melting agarose (Myogel-LMA) it was superior to Matrigel® in in vitro Transwell® invasion and capillary formation assays. CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, we have developed a novel Myogel TME matrix, which is recommended for in vitro human cell culture experiments since it closely mimics the human tumor microenvironment of solid cancers.

Quality control of mitochondrial protein synthesis is required for membrane integrity and cell fitness.

Mitochondrial ribosomes synthesize a subset of hydrophobic proteins required for assembly of the oxidative phosphorylation complexes. This process requires temporal and spatial coordination and regulation, so quality control of mitochondrial protein synthesis is paramount to maintain proteostasis. We show how impaired turnover of de novo mitochondrial proteins leads to aberrant protein accumulation in the mitochondrial inner membrane. This creates a stress in the inner membrane that progressively dissipates the mitochondrial membrane potential, which in turn stalls mitochondrial protein synthesis and fragments the mitochondrial network. The mitochondrial m-AAA protease subunit AFG3L2 is critical to this surveillance mechanism that we propose acts as a sensor to couple the synthesis of mitochondrial proteins with organelle fitness, thus ensuring coordinated assembly of the oxidative phosphorylation complexes from two sets of ribosomes.

Expression and evolution of the non-canonically translated yeast mitochondrial acetyl-CoA carboxylase Hfa1p.

The Saccharomyces cerevisiae genome encodes two sequence related acetyl-CoA carboxylases, the cytosolic Acc1p and the mitochondrial Hfa1p, required for respiratory function. Several aspects of expression of the HFA1 gene and its evolutionary origin have remained unclear. Here, we determined the HFA1 transcription initiation sites by 5' RACE analysis. Using a novel "Stop codon scanning" approach, we mapped the location of the HFA1 translation initiation site to an upstream AUU codon at position -372 relative to the annotated start codon. This upstream initiation leads to production of a mitochondrial targeting sequence preceding the ACC domains of the protein. In silico analyses of fungal ACC genes revealed conserved "cryptic" upstream mitochondrial targeting sequences in yeast species that have not undergone a whole genome duplication. Our Δhfa1 baker's yeast mutant phenotype rescue studies using the protoploid Kluyveromyces lactis ACC confirmed functionality of the cryptic upstream mitochondrial targeting signal. These results lend strong experimental support to the hypothesis that the mitochondrial and cytosolic acetyl-CoA carboxylases in S. cerevisiae have evolved from a single gene encoding both the mitochondrial and cytosolic isoforms. Leaning on a cursory survey of a group of genes of our interest, we propose that cryptic 5' upstream mitochondrial targeting sequences may be more abundant in eukaryotes than anticipated thus far.

Defects in mitochondrial fatty acid synthesis result in failure of multiple aspects of mitochondrial biogenesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Mitochondrial fatty acid synthesis (mtFAS) shares acetyl-CoA with the Krebs cycle as a common substrate and is required for the production of octanoic acid (C8) precursors of lipoic acid (LA) in mitochondria. MtFAS is a conserved pathway essential for respiration. In a genetic screen in Saccharomyces cerevisiae designed to further elucidate the physiological role of mtFAS, we isolated mutants with defects in mitochondrial post-translational gene expression processes, indicating a novel link to mitochondrial gene expression and respiratory chain biogenesis. In our ensuing analysis, we show that mtFAS, but not lipoylation per se, is required for respiratory competence. We demonstrate that mtFAS is required for mRNA splicing, mitochondrial translation and respiratory complex assembly, and provide evidence that not LA per se, but fatty acids longer than C8 play a role in these processes. We also show that mtFAS- and LA-deficient strains suffer from a mild haem deficiency that may contribute to the respiratory complex assembly defect. Based on our data and previously published information, we propose a model implicating mtFAS as a sensor for mitochondrial acetyl-CoA availability and a co-ordinator of nuclear and mitochondrial gene expression by adapting the mitochondrial compartment to changes in the metabolic status of the cell.

Avoiding unscheduled transcription in shared promoters: Saccharomyces cerevisiae Sum1p represses the divergent gene pair SPS18-SPS19 through a midsporulation element (MSE).

The sporulation-specific gene SPS18 shares a common promoter region with the oleic acid-inducible gene SPS19. Both genes are transcribed in sporulating diploid cells, albeit unevenly in favour of SPS18, whereas in haploid cells grown on fatty acids only SPS19 is highly activated. Here, SPS19 oleate-response element (ORE) conferred activation on a basal CYC1-lacZ reporter gene equally in both orientations, but promoter analysis using SPS18-lacZ reporter constructs with deletions identified a repressing fragment containing a midsporulation element (MSE) that could be involved in imposing directionality towards SPS19 in oleic acid-induced cells. In sporulating diploids, MSEs recruit the Ndt80p transcription factor for activation, whereas under vegetative conditions, certain MSEs are targeted by the Sum1p repressor in association with Hst1p and Rfm1p. Quantitative real-time PCR demonstrated that in haploid sum1Delta, hst1Delta, or rfm1Delta cells, oleic acid-dependent expression of SPS18 was higher compared with the situation in wild-type cells, but in the sum1Delta mutant, this effect was diminished in the absence of Oaf1p or Pip2p. We conclude that SPS18 MSE is a functional element repressing the expression of both SPS18 and SPS19, and is a component of a stricture mechanism shielding SPS18 from the dramatic increase in ORE-dependent transcription of SPS19 in oleic acid-grown cells.