Worms and welfare: Behavioural and physiological changes associated with gastrointestinal nematode parasitism in lambs.

Parasitism with gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) is a worldwide issue impacting negatively on animal production, health, and welfare. Therefore, early diagnostic signs of parasitism are required to allow for timely interventions. The objective of this study was to evaluate the behavioural and physiological changes in lambs associated with GIN infection. We used 30, 8-month-old Romney-cross wethers, that were administered anthelmintics until faecal egg counts (FEC) were zero and housed in an indoor facility. The study lasted 9 weeks, which comprised a 3-week pre-treatment, and a 6-week treatment phase. Lambs were randomly assigned to one of two treatments (n = 15/treatment) trickle-dosed with: 1) 1500 infective third stage larvae (L3) three days/week for 6 weeks (27,000 total L3; challenged), or 2) water 3 days/week for 6 weeks (control). Within each pen there were 5 pairs of lambs (balanced for liveweight), with each pair comprising a challenged and control lamb. Blood, faecal, and saliva samples were collected 1 week pre-treatment and weekly for 6 weeks of treatment. Behaviour was observed (e.g., feeding, lying, standing) from video-camera recordings using scan sampling every 5 min for 8 h, 1 day pre-treatment and on the day immediately prior to physiological sampling across the 6-week treatment phase (7 days in total). Accelerometers were attached to each lamb to continuously monitor behaviour from 3 weeks pre-treatment and for the remainder of the study. Liveweight, body condition, faecal soiling and faecal consistency scoring were performed weekly as was lipidomic analysis of plasma samples. From week 2 of treatment, challenged lambs spent less time feeding and more time lying than control lambs until week 5 of treatment (P ≤ 0.01). At week 3 of treatment, elevated lipids (mainly triglycerides and phospholipids), loose faeces and faecal soiling around the anus were observed in challenged lambs compared with controls (P ≤ 0.05). From week 4 of treatment, FEC were elevated in the challenged compared to control lambs (P ≤ 0.05). There was also lower liveweight gain at 4 and 5 weeks of treatment in the challenged lambs compared with control lambs (P ≤ 0.05). These results show a clear timeline of changes in behaviour (e.g., feeding and lying), lipids such as triglycerides, and digestive function (e.g., faecal soiling) suggestive of GIN subclinical disease, which show promise for use in future studies on early identification of subclinical GIN parasitism in lambs.

Fecal excretion of Campylobacter jejuni by young dairy calves and the relationship with neonatal immunity and personality traits.

AIMS: Zoonotic pathogens in bovine herds are major concerns for human and animal health, but their monitoring in animals can be challenging in the absence of clinical signs. Our objective was to determine the association between fecal excretion of Campylobacter jejuni, neonatal immunity, and personality traits of calves. METHODS AND RESULTS: Forty-eight dairy calves were reared in three indoor pens from birth to 4 weeks of life. Microbial analyses of the fecal samples collected weekly revealed that the proportion of calves naturally contaminated with C. jejuni in each pen reached 70% after 3 weeks of life. High (>16 g l-1) levels of IgG levels in the serum of neonatal calves were negatively (P = .04) associated with fecal detection of C. jejuni over the trial period. Calves that spent more time interacting with a novel object tended to be positive (P = .058) for C. jejuni. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, the findings indicate that the immunity of neonatal dairy animals and possibly the animal's behavior may contribute to the fecal shedding of C. jejuni.

Proposed multidimensional pain outcome methodology to demonstrate analgesic drug efficacy and facilitate future drug approval for piglet castration.

Castration of male piglets in the United States is conducted without analgesics because no Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved products are labeled for pain control in swine. The absence of approved products is primarily due to a wide variation in how pain is measured in suckling piglets and the lack of validated pain-specific outcomes individually indistinct from other biological responses, such as general stress or inflammation responses with cortisol. Simply put, to measure pain mitigation, measurement of pain must be specific, quantifiable, and defined. Therefore, given the need for mitigating castration pain, a consortium of researchers, veterinarians, industry, and regulatory agencies was formed to identify potential animal-based outcomes and develop a methodology, based on the known scientific research, to measure pain and the efficacy of mitigation strategies. The outcome-based measures included physiological, neuroendocrine, behavioral, and production parameters. Ultimately, this consortium aims to provide a validated multimodal methodology to demonstrate analgesic drug efficacy for piglet castration.Measurable outcomes were selected based on published studies suggesting their validity, reliability, and sensitivity for the direct or indirect measurement of pain associated with surgical castration in piglets. Outcomes to be considered are observation of pain behaviors (i.e. ethogram defined behaviors and piglet grimace scale), gait parameters measured with a pressure mat, infrared thermography of skin temperature of the cranium and periphery of the eye, and blood biomarkers. Other measures include body weight and mortality rate.This standardized measurement of the outcome variable's primary goal is to facilitate consistency and rigor by developing a research methodology utilizing endpoints that are well-defined and reliably measure pain in piglets. The resulting methodology will facilitate and guide the evaluation of the effectiveness of comprehensive analgesic interventions for 3- to 5-day-old piglets following surgical castration.

Characterization of Efficacy and Animal Safety across Four Caprine Disbudding Methodologies.

There is a strong industry demand for technically simple and highly efficacious alternatives to heat cautery disbudding in goat kids that can be performed as a stand-alone procedure without adjunct anesthesia, and that result in improved overall welfare through reduced acute pain, reduced tissues healing interval, and a consistent safety record. The objective of this study was to consider the net effect of disbudding techniques on goat welfare by examining vocalization frequency, long-term efficacy and animal safety associated with four alternative caprine disbudding methods against sham-disbudded and heat-cautery controls. Sixty-five commercial male dairy kids were disbudded at 3-10 days of age with one of six disbudding treatments (clove oil injection, caustic paste, two cryosurgical methods, heat-cautery, and sham procedure). Heat cautery was 91% effective, caustic paste was 55% effective, and the other treatments were ineffective. Heat cautery and sham procedures resulted in similar vocalization efforts; freezing with a liquid-nitrogen cooled iron resulted in significantly greater vocalization numbers. No unintended paste transfer injuries were observed with short-term application of the caustic paste. Heat cautery resulted in numerous superficial infections but no permanent injury. Clove oil injection was associated with several unexpected and severe complications including unintended tissue necrosis, temporary paresis, skull defects, meningitis, and death. Collectively, we did not find that any of the alternative methods of disbudding provided a feasible option over heat cautery to improve welfare.

Acute cortisol and behavior of dairy goat kids administered local anesthesia, topical anesthesia or systemic analgesia prior to cautery disbudding.

Cautery disbudding of goat kids causes thermal burns and tissue destruction, which results in acute and post-operative pain and negatively affects animal welfare. The objectives of this study were to evaluate acute cortisol concentrations and behavioral responses associated with (1) injecting a lidocaine ring block prior to cautery disbudding and comparing this to saline injections and (2) pain mitigation strategies (lidocaine ring block, topical eutectic mixture of local anesthetics (EMLA) cream, oral meloxicam) on cautery disbudded dairy goat kids. Sixty doe kids were allocated to one of six treatments: (1) disbudding without pain relief (DB), (2) a ring block using 1% lidocaine (DBLA) 20 min before disbudding, (3) saline injection (DBSA) 20 min before disbudding, (4) oral meloxicam 60 min before disbudding (DBMEL), (5) EMLA cream rubbed into the buds 60 min before disbudding (DBEM) and (6) handled but not disbudded (HAND). Blood was sampled pre- (-20 and -5 min) and post-treatment (15 and 30 min) to assess plasma cortisol concentrations and behavior during treatment was recorded using video cameras to assess rump movements, tail shakes and vocalizations (values presented as number/treatment). DBLA and DBSA kids showed elevated cortisol above baseline 5 min pre-disbudding (after injections) (P ≤ 0.01), which was no different to cortisol 15 min post-disbudding (P > 0.05). Rump movements and tail shakes of DBLA (5.5 ± 0.8 and 6.9 ± 1.2) and DBSA kids (5.6 ± 0.8 and 7.2 ± 1.2) were no different to those of DB kids (P > 0.10). Cortisol was elevated from baseline for 30 min post-disbudding for DBEM kids and DBMEL kids (P ≤ 0.05). Rump movements, tail shakes and vocalizations of DBEM (5.7 ± 0.8, 6.3 ± 1.2 and 11.1 ± 1.6) and DBMEL kids (5.3 ± 0.8, 8.0 ± 1.2 and 9.1 ± 1.6) were no different to those of DB kids (P > 0.05). HAND kids showed no change in cortisol over time (P > 0.10) and performed fewer rump movements, tail shakes and vocalizations than all treatments (P ≤ 0.01). In conclusion, lidocaine injection using a ring block appears to cause more pain than handling alone and may not reduce pain associated with cautery disbudding; therefore, a lidocaine ring block may not be a useful pain mitigation strategy for disbudding dairy goat kids. There was no evidence that meloxicam reduced acute pain and EMLA cream may have intensified the pain associated with disbudding. Further research on efficacious pain mitigation strategies for cautery disbudding of dairy goat kids is required.

Can Isoflurane and Meloxicam Mitigate Pain Associated with Cautery Disbudding of 3-Week-Old Goat Kids?

: We evaluated the effect of pain mitigation strategies (isoflurane and meloxicam) on the behaviour and physiology of 3-week-old disbudded goat kids. Fifty Saanen does (mean ± SD, 21 ± 3 days old) were randomly allocated to one of five treatments: (1) cautery-disbudded (CAUT), (2) CAUT + isoflurane (ISO), (3) CAUT + isoflurane + meloxicam (ISO+MEL), (4) CAUT + meloxicam (MEL), and (5) handled without disbudding or pain relief (SHAM). Blood samples were taken immediately prior to treatment and at 15-, 60- and 120-min post-treatment to assess cortisol, glucose and lactate concentrations. Behaviour (head shaking and scratching, body shaking, feeding and self-grooming) was observed for 1 h pre- and post-treatment using video-cameras. ISO + MEL and ISO kids had lower cortisol concentrations than CAUT kids 15 min post-treatment (p ≤ 0.05). There was no effect of treatment or time for glucose and lactate concentrations (p ≥ 0.62). At 35 min post-treatment, CAUT, MEL and ISO kids performed more head shakes than SHAM kids (p ≤ 0.05). Isoflurane, with or without meloxicam, may reduce acute stress associated with disbudding of 3-week-old goat kids. More research is needed to assess whether isoflurane (with or without meloxicam) can provide sufficient pain relief for disbudding 3-week-old kids.

Evaluation of infrared thermography as a non-invasive method of measuring the autonomic nervous response in sheep.

Eye temperature measured using infrared thermography (IRT) can be used as a non-invasive measure of autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity in cattle. The objective of this study was to evaluate if changes in eye temperature (measured using IRT) can be used to non-invasively measure ANS activity in sheep. Twenty, 2 to 4-year-old, Romney ewes were randomly assigned to receive either epinephrine (EPI) or physiological saline (SAL) for 5 min administered via jugular catheter (n = 10 ewes/treatment). Eye temperature (°C) was recorded continuously using IRT for approximately 25 min before and 20 min after the start of infusion. Heart rate and heart rate variability, measured using the root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD) and the standard deviation of all inter-beat intervals (SDNN), were recorded for 5 min before and up to 10 min after the start of infusion. Blood samples were taken before and after the infusion period to measure plasma epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol and packed cell volume (PCV) concentrations. During the infusion period, maximum eye temperature was on average higher (P<0.05) in sheep that received epinephrine than those that received saline. On average, heart rate was higher (SAL: 87.5 beats/min, EPI: 123.2 beats/min, SED = 7.07 beats/min; P<0.05), and RMSSD (SAL: 55.3 ms, EPI: 17.3 ms, SED = 14.18 ms) and SDNN (SAL: 54.3 ms, EPI: 21.5 ms, SED = 10.00 ms) lower (P<0.05) in ewes during the 5 min post-infusion period compared with ewes that received saline. An infusion of epinephrine resulted in higher geometric mean epinephrine (P<0.05) and cortisol (P<0.05) but not norepinephrine (P>0.05) concentrations in ewes compared to an infusion of saline. PCV concentrations were higher (P<0.001) by 7 ± 1.0% (mean±SED) in ewes after an epinephrine infusion. These results suggest that heart rate variability is a sensitive, non-invasive method that can be used to measure ANS activity in sheep, whereas change in eye temperature measured using IRT is a less sensitive method.

Cautery Disbudding Iron Application Time and Brain Injury in Goat Kids: A Pilot Study.

Cautery disbudding is a painful procedure performed on goat kids to prevent horn growth that may result in brain injury. Thermal damage to the cerebral cortex of the brain and subsequent neurologic disease is a primary concern. Cautery iron application time may affect transmission of heat to the brain; however, research in this area is scarce. Therefore, the objective of this pilot study was to evaluate the effect of iron application time on brain injury of goat kids. A total of six buck and doe kids <9 days of age were obtained from a commercial dairy and transported to an Iowa State University research facility. Kids received a different randomly assigned application time (5, 10, 15, or 20s) on each horn bud. Kids were disbudded using an electric cautery iron (under isoflurane general anesthesia). After a 5-day observation period, the kids were euthanized, and magnetic resonance (MR) images were acquired to evaluate brain injury. Additionally, four of the six kids were presented for gross examination and two kids were selected for histopathologic examination. From the MR images, white matter edema was observed subjacent to four treated areas, representing application times of 5 s (one horn bud), 15 s (one horn bud), and 20 s (two horn buds). With the exception of the horn bud that received 5 s, which had white matter edema restricted to a single gyrus, the remaining three groups had a branching region of edema. No bone abnormalities were identified on any kids. Gross evidence of discoloration and hemorrhage on the cerebral hemispheres was observed on two horn buds that received 20 s, two horn buds that received 15 s, and one horn bud that received 10 s. Microscopic lesions consisting of leptomeningeal and cerebrocortical necrosis were observed in sections of brain from all groups. Lesions were most severe with 20 s. In conclusion, all application times used in this study resulted in some level of brain injury; however, using 15 s or more resulted in more severe and consistent brain injury. These results indicate that extended iron application time may increase the risk of brain injury in cautery disbudded kids.

The effectiveness of clove oil and two different cautery disbudding methods on preventing horn growth in dairy goat kids.

The effectiveness of clove oil and cautery disbudding on horn growth was evaluated in goat kids. The study used 243 Saanen doe kids (4±1 days old; mean±SD) on two goat farms that were disbudded with either (i) clove oil injection (CLOVE), (ii) a cautery iron and bud removed (BUDOFF), or (iii) a cautery iron with bud left intact (BUDON). Each kid received a different treatment per bud, which were balanced between buds (left/right) and randomly allocated. A trained observer monitored bud growth following treatment for 3 months recording either: N: no growth, H: normal horn, S: abnormal horn (scur), or SC: soft, fibrous lump (scorn). After the final observation, buds were assessed for the probability of detecting (i) success (no growth), (ii) scurs, (iii) horns or (iv) scorns [with 95% CI]. The probability of success for BUDOFF (0.77 [0.63, 0.87]) was higher than for BUDON (0.20 [0.11, 0.34]) and CLOVE (0.09 [0.04, 0.18]; P ≤ 0.05). Furthermore, the probability of success for BUDON was higher than for CLOVE (P ≤ 0.05). The probability of scurs was higher for CLOVE (0.72 [0.63, 0.80]) than BUDOFF (0.25 [0.17, 0.34]) and BUDON (0.30 [0.21, 0.39]; P ≤ 0.05). There was no difference in the probability of scurs for BUDOFF and BUDON (P > 0.05). The probability of horns was higher for CLOVE (0.21 [0.15, 0.29]) than BUDON (0.02 [0.01, 0.06]; P ≤ 0.05); horns were not observed for BUDOFF. The probability of scorns for BUDON, the only treatment that led to scorns, was 0.41 (0.25, 0.60). These results suggest that BUDOFF was more effective at preventing growth than CLOVE and BUDON and appears the most effective method, of the methods tested, for disbudding kids. Future research should explore other alternatives to cautery disbudding that may be both efficacious and cause less pain.

Evaluation of alternatives to cautery disbudding of dairy goat kids using physiological measures of immediate and longer-term pain.

We evaluated alternatives to cautery disbudding of goat kids using physiological measures of immediate and longer-term pain. Fifty Saanen doe kids were randomly assigned to 1 of 5 treatments (n = 10/treatment): (1) cautery disbudding (CAUT), (2) caustic paste disbudding (CASP), (3) liquid nitrogen disbudding (CRYO), (4) clove oil injected into the horn bud (CLOV), or (5) sham disbudding (SHAM). Serum cortisol and haptoglobin concentrations were measured from blood samples collected immediately before treatment (baseline) and at 15, 30, 60, and 120 min and then again at 6 and 24 h post-treatment. An infrared thermography camera was used to take images of the horn buds 24 h pre- and 24, 48, and 72 h post-treatment to measure skin temperature. Body weight was measured daily for 1 wk to assess weight change post-treatment. Images of the horn buds were taken at d 1, 2, and 7 and at 6 wk post-treatment to assess tissue damage and wound healing. Mean cortisol concentrations were elevated in CASP kids 1 h post-treatment relative to CAUT kids. Cortisol concentrations of CRYO kids were higher than those of CAUT kids 30 min post-treatment; concentrations for CLOV kids were similar to CAUT kids post-treatment. Mean haptoglobin concentrations were similar across treatments over time; however, CLOV kids had higher concentrations at 24 h post-treatment than all other treatments. Skin temperatures of CASP and CLOV kids were elevated relative to CAUT kids at all time points post-treatment, and all disbudded kids had skin temperatures above those of SHAM kids at 72 h post-treatment. Treatment did not influence weight gain. The CAUT kids had large, open wounds exposing bone; small scabs were still evident 6 wk post-treatment. The CASP kids had red and open, raw wounds that generated large eschars, apparent for up to 6 wk. The CRYO kids had closed, dry wounds initially, but over time lesions appeared that caused open wounds; small scabs were present 6 wk post-treatment. The CLOV kids had closed, dry wounds with blackened skin; healed skin and minimal scabs were present 6 wk post-treatment. Caustic paste and cryosurgical disbudding appeared to cause more pain compared with cautery disbudding; thus, these methods may not provide good alternatives to cautery disbudding. Clove oil appeared to cause a similar pain response as cautery disbudding and smaller wounds with earlier tissue repair; this method shows promise as an alternative to cautery disbudding.

Effect of isoflurane alone or in combination with meloxicam on the behavior and physiology of goat kids following cautery disbudding.

Cautery disbudding of goat kids is painful, but may be alleviated with pain mitigation. We therefore evaluated the effect of administering general anesthesia (isoflurane) or a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (meloxicam) on goat kid behavior and physiology following cautery disbudding. Trial 1 (n = 12/treatment) evaluated behavioral responses in 72 female Saanen dairy goat kids (mean ± standard error of the mean; 3.9 ± 0.15 d old) and trial 2 (n = 10/treatment) evaluated physiological responses in 60 female Saanen dairy goat kids (4.3 ± 0.14 d old). Goat kids were randomly assigned to 1 of 6 treatment groups that were either (1) sham-handled only (simulated disbudding; SHAM) or disbudded with (2) no pain relief (CAUT), (3) isoflurane gas (ISO), (4) isoflurane and s.c. meloxicam combined (ISO+MEL), (5) meloxicam s.c. (0.5 mg/kg of body weight; I-MEL), or (6) oral meloxicam (0.2 mg/kg of body weight; O-MEL). Head shaking, head scratching, self-grooming, feeding, and body shaking were continuously video recorded for 24 h pre- and post-treatment. Lying behavior was recorded continuously for 24 h pre- and post-treatment using accelerometers. Plasma cortisol, glucose, and lactate concentrations were measured from blood samples collected immediately before treatment (baseline) and at 15, 60, and 120 min post-treatment. Body temperature was measured immediately after blood sampling at all blood sampling time points. Head shaking and body shaking frequencies were 50% higher in CAUT than SHAM kids 5 min post-treatment; ISO+MEL and ISO kids performed 25% less body shakes than CAUT kids. Head scratching durations 1 h post-treatment were higher in CAUT than SHAM kids, whereas O-MEL were similar to SHAM kids from 2 h post-treatment. Self-grooming, feeding, and lying did not differ between groups. Cortisol concentrations were higher in CAUT than SHAM kids (156.4 ± 26.41 and 104.1 ± 26.41 nmol/L, respectively), whereas ISO+MEL and ISO kids (88.3 ± 26.41 and 113.2 ± 26.41 nmol/L, respectively) had lower cortisol concentrations than CAUT kids over the 2-h sampling period. Moreover, O-MEL and I-MEL kids (163.0 ± 26.41 and 130.9 ± 26.41 nmol/L, respectively) had similar cortisol concentrations to CAUT kids. We found no evidence that plasma glucose and lactate concentrations or body temperature were affected by treatment. The administration of isoflurane, with or without meloxicam, appeared to reduce pain associated with cautery disbudding.

Relationship between Environmental Enrichment and the Response to Novelty in Laboratory-housed Pigs.

Environmental enrichment is the enhancement of the physical or social environment in which an animal lives with the goal to improve its quality of life. Our objective was to investigate the effect of providing environmental enrichment in the home pen on responsiveness to novelty in laboratory-housed pigs. Pigs were housed (4 pigs per pen) in enriched (n = 32) or barren (control; n = 32) pens for 3 wk total and tested in 2 anxiety behavioral tests, the novel object (NOT) and human interaction (HIT) tests. Pigs were placed in a novel arena for a 5-min familiarization period, after which either a novel object (NOT) or an unfamiliar human (HIT) was introduced for a 5-min interaction period. Behavior in the home pen and during NOT and HIT was monitored through direct observations and videorecording. In the home pen, enriched pigs spent more time active and interacting with the environment, whereas control pigs spent more time inactive and in social interactions. In addition, enriched pigs crossed more squares during the familiarization period, tended to freeze more, and interacted less with the novel object or person than control pigs. In conclusion, enrichment may improve welfare by stimulating activity and decreasing aggressive behaviors in the home pen. However, enriched pigs may experience increased anxiety when exposed to novelty, whereas pigs housed without environmental enrichment-due to lack of stimulation in the home pen-may be more motivated to interact with sources of novelty or enrichment during testing than their enriched counterparts.

Electroencephalographic responses of anaesthetized pigs (Sus scrofa) to tail docking using clippers or cautery iron performed at 2 or 20 days of age.

OBJECTIVE: To compare electroencephalographic (EEG) responses of pigs to tail docking using clippers or cautery iron, performed at 2 or 20 days of age. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective, randomised controlled experimental study. ANIMALS: A total of 40 Large White x Landrace entire male pigs aged 2 (n=20) or 20 (n=20) days were randomly assigned to undergo tail docking using clippers or cautery iron. METHODS: Anaesthesia was induced and maintained with halothane delivered in oxygen. Following instrumentation, end-tidal halothane concentration was stabilised at 1.0±0.05%, and EEG recording commenced. After a 5 minute baseline period, tail docking was performed and recording continued for additional 10 minutes. EEG data were subjected to Fast Fourier transformation, yielding the summary variables median frequency (F50), 95% spectral edge frequency (F95) and total power (PTOT). Variables recorded during the baseline period were compared with those calculated at consecutive 15 second intervals following tail docking. RESULTS: Following tail docking, F50 decreased briefly but significantly in 2-day-olds, whereas 20-day-olds exhibited a sustained increase in F50 (p<0.05). Immediately after tail docking, F50 was overall lower in 2-day-olds than in 20-day-olds (p<0.05). F95 increased after docking in 20-day-olds docked using clippers (p<0.05) but did not change in 20-day-olds docked using cautery iron or in 2-day-olds docked using either method. Overall, F95 was lower in 2-day-olds than in 20-day-olds from 30 to 60 seconds after docking (p<0.05). PTOT decreased after docking in 20-day-olds (p<0.05) but did not change in 2-day-olds. Overall, PTOT was lower in 2- than in 20-day-olds during baseline and after tail docking (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: These data suggest that tail docking using clippers is more acutely painful than docking using cautery iron and that docking within the first days of birth may be less acutely painful than docking at a later age.

Effects of space allowance on the behavior and physiology of cattle temporarily managed on rubber mats.

Dairy cattle managed in some pasture-based systems, such as in New Zealand, are predominantly kept outdoors all year around but are taken off pasture for periods, especially in wet weather to avoid soil damage. The use of rubber matting for such stand-off practices is becoming more common to improve animal welfare, and our objective was to investigate the effects of different space allowances on cow behavior and physiology when managed temporarily on rubber mats during a weather-induced stand-off period. Thirty pregnant, nonlactating Holstein-Friesian dairy cows were divided into 6 groups of 5 and exposed to 6 treatments following a Williams designed 6×6 Latin square. The treatments consisted of 6 space allowances on a 24-mm rubber surface during a simulated weather-induced stand-off period: 3.0, 4.5, 6.0, 7.5, 9.0, and 10.5 m(2)/cow. The stand-off period consisted of 18 h in the treatment pens followed by 6 h at pasture to allow for their daily feed intake (no feed was available during stand-off, following normal farm practice), for 3 consecutive days, with 6 d of recovery on pasture between treatments. When cows had more space available during the stand-off period, they spent more time lying on the rubber mats and less time lying on pasture during their daily 6-h feed break. Mean lying times (24 h, pasture and rubber mats combined) for the different space allowances were for 3.0 m(2)=7.5 h, 4.5 m(2)=10.2 h, 6.0 m(2)=11.9 h, 7.5 m(2)=12.4 h, and 10.5 m(2)=13.8 h. At 6.0 m(2) of space allowance per cow, the animals spent similar times lying per 24 h as when the cows were on recovery on pasture in between treatments (11.9 and 11.2 h, respectively). Aggressive interactions and nonaggressive lying disturbances were more frequent at lower space allowances (aggressive interactions decreased by 35% from 3.0 to 4.5 m(2)/cow, with a slower decline thereafter). Cows were dirtier after the stand-off period, particularly at lower space allowances. All cows had higher gait scores after the stand-off period; however, this change was unaffected by space allowance and very minor. Stride length, plasma cortisol, and body weight were all unaffected by the stand-off period and space allowance. The results suggest that to reduce aggressive behavior and maintain adequate lying times, dairy cattle managed temporarily on rubber matting for up to 18 h per day, without feed, should have a space allowance of at least 4.5 to 6.0 m(2) per cow.

Possible involvement of oxytocin in modulating the stress response in lactating dairy cows.

Oxytocin can attenuate the physiological and behavioral response to stress in animals. In this study we investigated the relationship between plasma oxytocin concentrations and the behavioral and physiological response of dairy cows to a repeated psychological stressor (novel environment). Twenty lactating multi-parous dairy cows were milked in a familiar milking parlor and in a novel environment. Blood samples were collected before and after milking in the familiar parlor (baseline) and on the second and fifth day in the novel parlor to measure plasma cortisol and oxytocin concentrations. Heart rate was recorded on all cows during milking in the familiar and novel environment. On all test days, the behavioral response of cows to milk cluster attachment was scored. On day 2 in the novel parlor, the oxytocin response, cortisol concentrations and heart rate were greater, and heart rate variability was lower than baseline values recorded in the familiar parlor. The results from this study suggest that oxytocin release is increased in response to exposure to a psychological stressor (novel environment) and that cows adapt to this stressor over time. After initial suppression, oxytocin levels increased over days of milking in a novel environment, whereas indicators of stress simultaneously decreased. Furthermore, the oxytocin increase was associated with habituation of the cortisol response in anticipation of milking in a novel environment, suggesting that oxytocin may be involved in habituation to a novel environment in dairy cows. This mechanism of habituation to novel environments may reflect an association between oxytocin and a "familiarization-habituation response" to repeated exposure to an initially novel environment that has previously been reported in humans.

Effects of Transport at Weaning on the Behavior, Physiology and Performance of Pigs.

Transport of pigs to separate production facilities at the time of weaning is a common practice, primarily performed to reduce vertical transfer of disease and enhance production and overall farm efficiency. During transport, pigs are exposed to numerous stressors in conjunction with the stress experienced as a result of weaning. In this review, the behavioral and physiological response of pigs experiencing weaning and transport simultaneously will be described, including the effects of space allowance, season and transport duration. Based on the scientific literature, the gaps in the knowledge regarding potential welfare issues are discussed. Changes in behavior and physiology suggest that weaned pigs may experience stress due to transport. Space allowance, season and duration are aspects of transport that can have a marked impact on these responses. To date, the literature regarding the effects of transport on weaned pigs has primarily focused on the short term stress response and little is known about the effects of concurrent weaning and transport on other aspects of pig welfare including morbidity and mortality rates. Greater understanding of the short and long term consequences of transport on weaned pig welfare particularly in relation to factors such as trip duration, provision of feed and water, and best handling practices would benefit the swine industry. Furthermore, the development of guidelines and recommendations to enhance the short and long term welfare of weaned pigs in relation to transport are needed.

Animal Health and Welfare Issues Facing Organic Production Systems.

The demand for organically-grown produce is increasing worldwide, with one of the drivers being an expectation among consumers that animals have been farmed to a high standard of animal welfare. This review evaluates whether this expectation is in fact being met, by describing the current level of science-based knowledge of animal health and welfare in organic systems. The primary welfare risk in organic production systems appears to be related to animal health. Organic farms use a combination of management practices, alternative and complementary remedies and convenional medicines to manage the health of their animals and in many cases these are at least as effective as management practices employed by non-organic producers. However, in contrast to non-organic systems, there is still a lack of scientifically evaluated, organically acceptable therapeutic treatments that organic animal producers can use when current management practices are not sufficient to maintain the health of their animals. The development of such treatments are necessary to assure consumers that organic animal-based food and fibre has not only been produced with minimal or no chemical input, but under high standards of animal welfare.

The effect of temperament and responsiveness towards humans on the behavior, physiology and milk production of multi-parous dairy cows in a familiar and novel milking environment.

The objectives of this study were to investigate whether; 1) temperament or 2) behavioral responsiveness to humans, can affect the behavior, physiology and productivity of dairy cows being milked in a familiar and novel milking environment. Temperament of multi-parous cows was defined based on exit time from a restraint device, as High Responders (HR; n=10), Medium Responders (MR; n=10) or Low Responders (LR; n=10). The behavioral response of cows to humans was assessed using four tests: restraint, exit speed, avoidance distance test and a voluntary approach test. Cows were milked according to their established routines in a rotary (familiar) milking parlor and behavioral, physiological and production data were collected over five consecutive days, including heart rate, cortisol and oxytocin concentrations and milk yield. The following week, cows were milked in a novel environment (herringbone parlor within the same farm facility) over five consecutive days, and the data and sample collection program was repeated. Cows were then given an exogenous adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) challenge to measure adrenal responsiveness. Exit time was negatively correlated with the behavioral responses of cows to restraint and human avoidance distance (HAD) in the paddock and arena. The behavioral response of cows to the milking process was greater in MR than LR and HR cows in the familiar and novel milking environments. Milk yields were greater in LR than HR cows in the novel but not the familiar milking parlor. Oxytocin concentrations increased during milking in the novel environment, regardless of cow temperament. In the familiar and novel environments, heart rates were higher in HR than LR cows before and during milking and rMSSD was lower in HR cows during milking in a novel environment. There was no difference in cortisol concentrations between LR and HR cows in response to an ACTH challenge, but HR cows had higher baseline cortisol levels than LR cows. The number of leg lifts cows performed when restrained in the crush was associated with several physiological and milk production measures. These results indicate that cows with different temperaments vary in their basal physiology as well as their behavioral and physiological responses to milking and stress associated with being milked in a novel environment.

A multidisciplinary approach to assess the welfare of weaned pigs during transport at three space allowances.

Transport can be a stressful experience for pigs, especially in pigs simultaneously experiencing weaning stress. The objective of this study was to use a multidisciplinary approach to assess the welfare of weaned pigs during transport at 3 space allowances. A commercial semitrailer, fitted with compartments, provided 0.05, 0.06, and 0.07 m(2)/pig. The study recorded frequency of standing, lying, sitting, and standing-rearing on another pig during the entire duration of transport. Blood samples, body weights, and lesion scores were collected from a subset of pigs (n = 48 per space allowance) in each experimental compartment. Transport time for the pigs was 148.0 +/- 10.0 min to the wean-to-finishing site. Total white blood cell counts, cortisol, and several blood chemistry values increased (p < .05) after transport regardless of space allowance. Glucose and body weight decreased (p < .05) after transport regardless of space allowance. Space allowance influenced stand-rearing, sitting, standing, and lying behaviors in pigs. Combining behavioral and physiological measures of stress provides a robust picture of piglet welfare during transport at different space allowances.

Heat and social rank impact behavior and physiology of PRRS-virus-infected pigs.

Changes in thermal environment can invoke a stress response in pigs, which in turn can potentially impact their immune system and disease susceptibility. We investigated effects of heat stress and social rank on behavior, immune responsiveness, and performance of pigs challenged with porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) virus. Sixty-four 7-week-old PRRS-naïve pigs were assigned to each of four experimental treatments consisting of a 2 x 2 factorial design: PRRS (PRRS- or PRRS+) and environmental temperature (24 degrees C or 32 degrees C). Blood samples were taken prior to and at days 7 and 14 post-inoculation, and alveolar macrophages were collected via bronchoalveolar lavage at day 14. Total white blood cell counts, natural killer cytotoxicity, macrophage numbers, macrophage subpopulations, and performance measures were all significantly affected by social rank, heat stress, and/or infection status of the pig. Heat stress and PRRS status also significantly influenced the amount of time pigs spent lying with or without contacting another animal. Cortisol and various immune measures were also affected by PRRS status. These results show not only that intranasal inoculation with PRRS virus affects physiological, behavioral, and performance measures in growing pigs, but that social rank influences pigs' immune responsiveness to PRRS as well. Moreover, heat stress does not have additive negative impact on physiological or performance traits in pigs challenged with PRRS virus.