Candida albicans extracellular vesicles trigger type I IFN signalling via cGAS and STING.

The host type I interferon (IFN) pathway is a major signature of inflammation induced by the human fungal pathogen, Candida albicans. However, the molecular mechanism for activating this pathway in the host defence against C. albicans remains unknown. Here we reveal that mice lacking cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS)-stimulator of IFN genes (STING) pathway components had improved survival following an intravenous challenge by C. albicans. Biofilm-associated C. albicans DNA packaged in extracellular vesicles triggers the cGAS-STING pathway as determined by induction of interferon-stimulated genes, IFNß production, and phosphorylation of IFN regulatory factor 3 and TANK-binding kinase 1. Extracellular vesicle-induced activation of type I IFNs was independent of the Dectin-1/Card9 pathway and did not require toll-like receptor 9. Single nucleotide polymorphisms in cGAS and STING potently altered inflammatory cytokine production in human monocytes challenged by C. albicans. These studies provide insights into the early innate immune response induced by a clinically significant fungal pathogen.

Impaired neural stress resistance and loss of REST in bipolar disorder.

Neurodevelopmental changes and impaired stress resistance have been implicated in the pathogenesis of bipolar disorder (BD), but the underlying regulatory mechanisms are unresolved. Here we describe a human cerebral organoid model of BD that exhibits altered neural development, elevated neural network activity, and a major shift in the transcriptome. These phenotypic changes were reproduced in cerebral organoids generated from iPS cell lines derived in different laboratories. The BD cerebral organoid transcriptome showed highly significant enrichment for gene targets of the transcriptional repressor REST. This was associated with reduced nuclear REST and REST binding to target gene recognition sites. Reducing the oxygen concentration in organoid cultures to a physiological range ameliorated the developmental phenotype and restored REST expression. These effects were mimicked by treatment with lithium. Reduced nuclear REST and derepression of REST targets genes were also observed in the prefrontal cortex of BD patients. Thus, an impaired cellular stress response in BD cerebral organoids leads to altered neural development and transcriptional dysregulation associated with downregulation of REST. These findings provide a new model and conceptual framework for exploring the molecular basis of BD.

Unlocking the magic in mycelium: Using synthetic biology to optimize filamentous fungi for biomanufacturing and sustainability.

Filamentous fungi drive carbon and nutrient cycling across our global ecosystems, through its interactions with growing and decaying flora and their constituent microbiomes. The remarkable metabolic diversity, secretion ability, and fiber-like mycelial structure that have evolved in filamentous fungi have been increasingly exploited in commercial operations. The industrial potential of mycelial fermentation ranges from the discovery and bioproduction of enzymes and bioactive compounds, the decarbonization of food and material production, to environmental remediation and enhanced agricultural production. Despite its fundamental impact in ecology and biotechnology, molds and mushrooms have not, to-date, significantly intersected with synthetic biology in ways comparable to other industrial cell factories (e.g. Escherichia coli,Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Komagataella phaffii). In this review, we summarize a suite of synthetic biology and computational tools for the mining, engineering and optimization of filamentous fungi as a bioproduction chassis. A combination of methods across genetic engineering, mutagenesis, experimental evolution, and computational modeling can be used to address strain development bottlenecks in established and emerging industries. These include slow mycelium growth rate, low production yields, non-optimal growth in alternative feedstocks, and difficulties in downstream purification. In the scope of biomanufacturing, we then detail previous efforts in improving key bottlenecks by targeting protein processing and secretion pathways, hyphae morphogenesis, and transcriptional control. Bringing synthetic biology practices into the hidden world of molds and mushrooms will serve to expand the limited panel of host organisms that allow for commercially-feasible and environmentally-sustainable bioproduction of enzymes, chemicals, therapeutics, foods, and materials of the future.

Transcriptomic analysis of pathways associated with ITGAV/alpha(v) integrin-dependent autophagy in human B cells.

Macroautophagy/autophagy proteins have been linked with the development of immune-mediated diseases including lupus, but the mechanisms for this are unclear due to the complex roles of these proteins in multiple immune cell types. We have previously shown that a form of noncanonical autophagy induced by ITGAV/alpha(v) integrins regulates B cell activation by viral and self-antigens, in mice. Here, we investigate the involvement of this pathway in B cells from human tissues. Our data reveal that autophagy is specifically induced in the germinal center and memory B cell subpopulations of human tonsils and spleens. Transcriptomic analysis show that the induction of autophagy is related to unique aspects of activated B cells such as mitochondrial metabolism. To understand the function of ITGAV/alpha(v) integrin-dependent autophagy in human B cells, we used CRISPR-mediated knockdown of autophagy genes. Integrating data from primary B cells and knockout cells, we found that ITGAV/alpha(v)-dependent autophagy limits activation of specific pathways related to B cell responses, while promoting others. These data provide new mechanistic links for autophagy and B-cell-mediated immune dysregulation in diseases such as lupus.

Identification and Treatment of Acute Pelvic Inflammatory Disease and Associated Sequelae.

Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is an ascending polymicrobial infection of the upper female genital tract. The presentation of PID varies from asymptomatic cases to severe sepsis. The diagnosis of PID is often one of exclusion. Primary treatment for PID includes broad-spectrum antibiotics with coverage against gonorrhea, chlamydia, and common anaerobic and aerobic bacteria. If not clinically improved by antibiotics, percutaneous drain placement can promote efficient source control, as is often the case with large tubo-ovarian abscesses. Ultimately, even with treatment, PID can result in long-term morbidity, including chronic pelvic pain, infertility, and ectopic pregnancy.

Harnessing the Potential of Multiomics Studies for Precision Medicine in Infectious Disease.

The field of infectious diseases currently takes a reactive approach and treats infections as they present in patients. Although certain populations are known to be at greater risk of developing infection (eg, immunocompromised), we lack a systems approach to define the true risk of future infection for a patient. Guided by impressive gains in "omics" technologies, future strategies to infectious diseases should take a precision approach to infection through identification of patients at intermediate and high-risk of infection and deploy targeted preventative measures (ie, prophylaxis). The advances of high-throughput immune profiling by multiomics approaches (ie, transcriptomics, epigenomics, metabolomics, proteomics) hold the promise to identify patients at increased risk of infection and enable risk-stratifying approaches to be applied in the clinic. Integration of patient-specific data using machine learning improves the effectiveness of prediction, providing the necessary technologies needed to propel the field of infectious diseases medicine into the era of personalized medicine.

Laboratory-Generated DNA Can Cause Anomalous Pathogen Diagnostic Test Results.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has brought about the unprecedented expansion of highly sensitive molecular diagnostics as a primary infection control strategy. At the same time, many laboratories have shifted focus to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) research and diagnostic development, leading to large-scale production of SARS-CoV-2 nucleic acids that can interfere with these tests. We have identified multiple instances, in independent laboratories, in which nucleic acids generated in research settings are suspected to have caused researchers to test positive for SARS-CoV-2 in surveillance testing. In some cases, the affected individuals did not work directly with these nucleic acids but were exposed via a contaminated surface or object. Though researchers have long been vigilant of DNA contaminants, the transfer of these contaminants to SARS-CoV-2 testing samples can result in anomalous test results. The impact of these incidents stretches into the public sphere, placing additional burdens on public health resources, placing affected researchers and their contacts in isolation and quarantine, removing them from the testing pool for 3 months, and carrying the potential to trigger shutdowns of classrooms and workplaces. We report our observations as a call for increased stewardship over nucleic acids with the potential to impact both the use and development of diagnostics. IMPORTANCE To meet the challenges imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic, research laboratories shifted their focus and clinical diagnostic laboratories developed and utilized new assays. Nucleic acid-based testing became widespread and, for the first time, was used as a prophylactic measure. We report 15 cases of researchers at two institutes testing positive for SARS-CoV-2 on routine surveillance tests, in the absence of any symptoms or transmission. These researchers were likely contaminated with nonhazardous nucleic acids generated in the laboratory in the course of developing new SARS-CoV-2 diagnostics. These contaminating nucleic acids were persistent and widespread throughout the laboratory. We report these findings as a cautionary tale to those working with nucleic acids used in diagnostic testing and as a call for careful stewardship of diagnostically relevant molecules. Our conclusions are especially relevant as at-home COVID-19 testing gains traction in the marketplace and these amplicons may impact on the general public.

The Known Unknowns of the Immune Response to Coccidioides.

Coccidioidomycosis, otherwise known as Valley Fever, is caused by the dimorphic fungi Coccidioides immitis and C. posadasii. While most clinical cases present with self-limiting pulmonary infection, dissemination of Coccidioides spp. results in prolonged treatment and portends higher mortality rates. While the structure, genome, and niches for Coccidioides have provided some insight into the pathogenesis of disease, the underlying immunological mechanisms of clearance or inability to contain the infection in the lung are poorly understood. This review focuses on the known innate and adaptive immune responses to Coccidioides and highlights three important areas of uncertainty and potential approaches to address them. Closing these gaps in knowledge may enable new preventative and therapeutic strategies to be pursued.

Barcoded oligonucleotides ligated on RNA amplified for multiplexed and parallel in situ analyses.

We present barcoded oligonucleotides ligated on RNA amplified for multiplexed and parallel insitu analyses (BOLORAMIS), a reverse transcription-free method for spatially-resolved, targeted, in situ RNA identification of single or multiple targets. BOLORAMIS was demonstrated on a range of cell types and human cerebral organoids. Singleplex experiments to detect coding and non-coding RNAs in human iPSCs showed a stem-cell signature pattern. Specificity of BOLORAMIS was found to be 92% as illustrated by a clear distinction between human and mouse housekeeping genes in a co-culture system, as well as by recapitulation of subcellular localization of lncRNA MALAT1. Sensitivity of BOLORAMIS was quantified by comparing with single molecule FISH experiments and found to be 11%, 12% and 35% for GAPDH, TFRC and POLR2A, respectively. To demonstrate BOLORAMIS for multiplexed gene analysis, we targeted 96 mRNAs within a co-culture of iNGN neurons and HMC3 human microglial cells. We used fluorescence in situ sequencing to detect error-robust 8-base barcodes associated with each of these genes. We then used this data to uncover the spatial relationship among cells and transcripts by performing single-cell clustering and gene-gene proximity analyses. We anticipate the BOLORAMIS technology for in situ RNA detection to find applications in basic and translational research.

Engineering adeno-associated viral vectors to evade innate immune and inflammatory responses.

Nucleic acids are used in many therapeutic modalities, including gene therapy, but their ability to trigger host immune responses in vivo can lead to decreased safety and efficacy. In the case of adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors, studies have shown that the genome of the vector activates Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9), a pattern recognition receptor that senses foreign DNA. Here, we engineered AAV vectors to be intrinsically less immunogenic by incorporating short DNA oligonucleotides that antagonize TLR9 activation directly into the vector genome. The engineered vectors elicited markedly reduced innate immune and T cell responses and enhanced gene expression in clinically relevant mouse and pig models across different tissues, including liver, muscle, and retina. Subretinal administration of higher-dose AAV in pigs resulted in photoreceptor pathology with microglia and T cell infiltration. These adverse findings were avoided in the contralateral eyes of the same animals that were injected with the engineered vectors. However, intravitreal injection of higher-dose AAV in macaques, a more immunogenic route of administration, showed that the engineered vector delayed but did not prevent clinical uveitis, suggesting that other immune factors in addition to TLR9 may contribute to intraocular inflammation in this model. Our results demonstrate that linking specific immunomodulatory noncoding sequences to much longer therapeutic nucleic acids can "cloak" the vector from inducing unwanted immune responses in multiple, but not all, models. This "coupled immunomodulation" strategy may widen the therapeutic window for AAV therapies as well as other DNA-based gene transfer methods.

Humans Surviving Cholera Develop Antibodies against Vibrio cholerae O-Specific Polysaccharide That Inhibit Pathogen Motility.

The mechanism of protection against cholera afforded by previous illness or vaccination is currently unknown. We have recently shown that antibodies targeting O-specific polysaccharide (OSP) of Vibrio cholerae correlate highly with protection against cholera. V. cholerae is highly motile and possesses a flagellum sheathed in OSP, and motility of V. cholerae correlates with virulence. Using high-speed video microscopy and building upon previous animal-related work, we demonstrate that sera, polyclonal antibody fractions, and OSP-specific monoclonal antibodies recovered from humans surviving cholera block V. cholerae motility at both subagglutinating and agglutinating concentrations. This antimotility effect is reversed by preadsorbing sera and polyclonal antibody fractions with purified OSP and is associated with OSP-specific but not flagellin-specific monoclonal antibodies. Fab fragments of OSP-specific polyclonal antibodies do not inhibit motility, suggesting a requirement for antibody-mediated cross-linking in motility inhibition. We show that OSP-specific antibodies do not directly affect V. cholerae viability, but that OSP-specific monoclonal antibody highly protects against death in the murine cholera model. We used in vivo competitive index studies to demonstrate that OSP-specific antibodies impede colonization and survival of V. cholerae in intestinal tissues and that this impact is motility dependent. Our findings suggest that the impedance of motility by antibodies targeting V. cholerae OSP contributes to protection against cholera.IMPORTANCE Cholera is a severe dehydrating illness of humans caused by Vibrio choleraeV. cholerae is a highly motile bacterium that has a single flagellum covered in lipopolysaccharide (LPS) displaying O-specific polysaccharide (OSP), and V. cholerae motility correlates with its ability to cause disease. The mechanisms of protection against cholera are not well understood; however, since V. cholerae is a noninvasive intestinal pathogen, it is likely that antibodies that bind the pathogen or its products in the intestinal lumen contribute to protection from infection. Here, we demonstrate that OSP-specific antibodies isolated from humans surviving cholera in Bangladesh inhibit V. cholerae motility and are associated with protection against challenge in a motility-dependent manner.

Simultaneous Monitoring of Multi-Enzyme Activity and Concentration in Tumor Using a Triply Labeled Fluorescent In Vivo Imaging Probe.

The use of fluorescent imaging probes that monitor the activity of proteases that experience an increase in expression and activity in tumors is well established. These probes can be conjugated to nanoparticles of iron oxide, creating a multimodal probe serving as both a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) agent and an indicator of local protease activity. Previous works describe probes for cathepsin D (CatD) and metalloproteinase-2 (MMP2) protease activity grafted to cross-linked iron oxide nanoparticles (CLIO). Herein, we have synthesized a triply labeled fluorescent iron oxide nanoparticle molecular imaging (MI) probe, including an AF750 substrate concentration reporter along with probes for cathepsin B (CatB) sand MMP2 protease activity. The reporter provides a baseline signal from which to compare the activity of the two proteases. The activity of the MI probe was verified through incubation with the proteases and tested in vitro using the human HT29 tumor cell line and in vivo using female nude mice injected with HT29 cells. We found the MI probe had the appropriate specificity to the activity of their respective proteases, and the reporter dye did not activate when incubated in the presence of only MMP2 and CatB. Probe fluorescent activity was confirmed in vitro, and reporter signal activation was also noted. The fluorescent activity was also visible in vivo, with injected HT29 cells exhibiting fluorescence, distinguishing them from the rest of the animal. The reporter signal was also observable in vivo, which allowed the signal intensities of the protease probes to be corrected; this is a unique feature of this MI probe design.

A Novel Dual Fluorochrome Near-Infrared Imaging Probe for Potential Alzheimer's Enzyme Biomarkers-BACE1 and Cathepsin D.

A molecular imaging probe to fluorescently image the ß-site of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) and cathepsin D (CatD) enzymes associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD) was designed and synthesized. This imaging probe was built upon iron oxide nanoparticles (cross-linked dextran iron oxide nanoparticles, or CLIO). Peptide substrates containing a terminal near-infrared fluorochrome (fluorophore emitting at 775 nm for CatD or fluorophore emitting at 669 nm for BACE1) were conjugated to the CLIO nanoparticles. The CatD substrate contained a phenylalanine-phenylalanine cleavage site more specific to CatD than BACE1. The BACE1 substrate contained the sequence surrounding the leucine-asparagine cleavage site of the BACE1 found in the Swedish mutation of APP, which is more specific to BACE1 than CatD. These fluorescently-labeled peptide substrates were then conjugated to the nanoparticle. The nanoparticle probes were purified by gel filtration, and their fluorescence intensities were determined using a fluorescence plate reader. The CatD peptide substrate demonstrated a 15.5-fold increase in fluorescence when incubated with purified CatD enzyme, and the BACE1 substrate exhibited a 31.5-fold increase in fluorescence when incubated with purified BACE1 enzyme. Probe specificity was also demonstrated in the human H4 neuroglioma cells and the H4 cells stably transfected with BACE1 in which the probe monitored enzymatic cleavage. In the H4 and H4-BACE1 cells, BACE1 and active CatD activity increased, an occurrence that was reflected in enzyme expression levels as determined by immunoblotting. These results demonstrate the applicability of this probe for detecting potential Alzheimer's enzyme biomarkers.

CD82 controls CpG-dependent TLR9 signaling.

The tetraspanin CD82 is a potent suppressor of tumor metastasis and regulates several processes including signal transduction, cell adhesion, motility, and aggregation. However, the mechanisms by which CD82 participates in innate immunity are unknown. We report that CD82 is a key regulator of TLR9 trafficking and signaling. TLR9 recognizes unmethylated cytosine-phosphate-guanine (CpG) motifs present in viral, bacterial, and fungal DNA. We demonstrate that TLR9 and CD82 associate in macrophages, which occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and post-ER. Moreover, CD82 is essential for TLR9-dependent myddosome formation in response to CpG stimulation. Finally, CD82 modulates TLR9-dependent NF-κB nuclear translocation, which is critical for inflammatory cytokine production. To our knowledge, this is the first time a tetraspanin has been implicated as a key regulator of TLR signaling. Collectively, our study demonstrates that CD82 is a specific regulator of TLR9 signaling, which may be critical in cancer immunotherapy approaches and coordinating the innate immune response to pathogens.-Khan, N. S., Lukason, D. P., Feliu, M., Ward, R. A., Lord, A. K., Reedy, J. L., Ramirez-Ortiz, Z. G., Tam, J. M., Kasperkovitz, P. V., Negoro, P. E., Vyas, T. D., Xu, S., Brinkmann, M. M., Acharaya, M., Artavanis-Tsakonas, K., Frickel, E.-M., Becker, C. E., Dagher, Z., Kim, Y.-M., Latz, E., Ploegh, H. L., Mansour, M. K., Miranti, C. K., Levitz, S. M., Vyas, J. M. CD82 controls CpG-dependent TLR9 signaling.

Tetraspanin CD82 Organizes Dectin-1 into Signaling Domains to Mediate Cellular Responses to Candida albicans.

Tetraspanins are a family of proteins possessing four transmembrane domains that help in lateral organization of plasma membrane proteins. These proteins interact with each other as well as other receptors and signaling proteins, resulting in functional complexes called "tetraspanin microdomains." Tetraspanins, including CD82, play an essential role in the pathogenesis of fungal infections. Dectin-1, a receptor for the fungal cell wall carbohydrate ß-1,3-glucan, is vital to host defense against fungal infections. The current study identifies a novel association between tetraspanin CD82 and Dectin-1 on the plasma membrane of Candida albicans-containing phagosomes independent of phagocytic ability. Deletion of CD82 in mice resulted in diminished fungicidal activity, increased C. albicans viability within macrophages, and decreased cytokine production (TNF-α, IL-1ß) at both mRNA and protein level in macrophages. Additionally, CD82 organized Dectin-1 clustering in the phagocytic cup. Deletion of CD82 modulates Dectin-1 signaling, resulting in a reduction of Src and Syk phosphorylation and reactive oxygen species production. CD82 knockout mice were more susceptible to C. albicans as compared with wild-type mice. Furthermore, patient C. albicans-induced cytokine production was influenced by two human CD82 single nucleotide polymorphisms, whereas an additional CD82 single nucleotide polymorphism increased the risk for candidemia independent of cytokine production. Together, these data demonstrate that CD82 organizes the proper assembly of Dectin-1 signaling machinery in response to C. albicans.

Biguanides enhance antifungal activity against Candida glabrata.

Candida spp. are the fourth leading cause of nosocomial blood stream infections in North America. Candida glabrata is the second most frequently isolated species, and rapid development of antifungal resistance has made treatment a challenge. In this study, we investigate the therapeutic potential of metformin, a biguanide with well-established action for diabetes, as an antifungal agent against C. glabrata. Both wild type and antifungal-resistant isolates of C. glabrata were subjected to biguanide and biguanide-antifungal combination treatment. Metformin, as well as other members of the biguanide family, were found to have antifungal activity against C. glabrata, with MIC50 of 9.34 ± 0.16 mg/mL, 2.09 ± 0.04 mg/mL and 1.87 ± 0.05 mg/mL for metformin, phenformin and buformin, respectively. We demonstrate that biguanides enhance the activity of several antifungal drugs, including voriconazole, fluconazole, and amphotericin, but not micafungin. The biguanide-antifungal combinations allowed for additional antifungal effects, with fraction inhibition concentration indexes ranging from 0.5 to 1. Furthermore, metformin was able to lower antifungal MIC50 in voriconazole and fluconazole-resistant clinical isolates of C. glabrata. We also observed growth reduction of C. glabrata with rapamycin and an FIC of 0.84 ± 0.09 when combined with metformin, suggesting biguanide action in C. glabrata may be related to inhibition of the mTOR complex. We conclude that the biguanide class has direct antifungal therapeutic potential and enhances the activity of select antifungals in the treatment of resistant C. glabrata isolates. These data support the further investigation of biguanides in the combination treatment of serious fungal infections.

Fluorescent Tracking of Yeast Division Clarifies the Essential Role of Spleen Tyrosine Kinase in the Intracellular Control of Candida glabrata in Macrophages.

Macrophages play a critical role in the elimination of fungal pathogens. They are sensed via cell surface pattern-recognition receptors and are phagocytosed into newly formed organelles called phagosomes. Phagosomes mature through the recruitment of proteins and lysosomes, resulting in addition of proteolytic enzymes and acidification of the microenvironment. Our earlier studies demonstrated an essential role of Dectin-1-dependent activation of spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk) in the maturation of fungal containing phagosomes. The absence of Syk activity interrupted phago-lysosomal fusion resulting in arrest at an early phagosome stage. In this study, we sought to define the contribution of Syk to the control of phagocytosed live Candida glabrata in primary macrophages. To accurately measure intracellular yeast division, we designed a carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester (CFSE) yeast division assay in which bright fluorescent parent cells give rise to dim daughter cells. The CFSE-labeling of C. glabrata did not affect the growth rate of the yeast. Following incubation with macrophages, internalized CFSE-labeled C. glabrata were retrieved by cellular lysis, tagged using ConA-647, and the amount of residual CFSE fluorescence was assessed by flow cytometry. C. glabrata remained undivided (CFSE bright) for up to 18 h in co-culture with primary macrophages. Treatment of macrophages with R406, a specific Syk inhibitor, resulted in loss of intracellular control of C. glabrata with initiation of division within 4 h. Delayed Syk inhibition after 8 h was less effective indicating that Syk is critically required at early stages of macrophage-fungal interaction. In conclusion, we demonstrate a new method of tracking division of C. glabrata using CFSE labeling. Our results suggest that early Syk activation is essential for macrophage control of phagocytosed C. glabrata.

The Carbohydrate Lectin Receptor Dectin-1 Mediates the Immune Response to Exserohilum rostratum.

Dematiaceous molds are found ubiquitously in the environment and cause a wide spectrum of human disease, including infections associated with high rates of mortality. Despite this, the mechanism of the innate immune response has been less well studied, although it is key in the clearance of fungal pathogens. Here, we focus on Exserohilum rostratum, a dematiaceous mold that caused 753 infections during a multistate outbreak due to injection of contaminated methylprednisolone. We show that macrophages are incapable of phagocytosing Exserohilum Despite a lack of phagocytosis, macrophage production of tumor necrosis factor alpha is triggered by hyphae but not spores and depends upon Dectin-1, a C-type lectin receptor. Dectin-1 is specifically recruited to the macrophage-hyphal interface but not the macrophage-spore interface due to differences in carbohydrate antigen expression between these two fungal forms. Corticosteroid and antifungal therapy perturb this response, resulting in decreased cytokine production. In vivo soft tissue infection in wild-type mice demonstrated that Exserohilum provokes robust neutrophilic and granulomatous inflammation capable of thwarting fungal growth. However, coadministration of methylprednisolone acetate results in robust hyphal tissue invasion and a significant reduction in immune cell recruitment. Our results suggest that Dectin-1 is crucial for macrophage recognition and the macrophage response to Exserohilum and that corticosteroids potently attenuate the immune response to this pathogen.

The Role of Autophagy-Related Proteins in Candida albicans Infections.

Autophagy plays an important role in maintaining cell homeostasis by providing nutrients during periods of starvation and removing damaged organelles from the cytoplasm. A marker in the autophagic process is the reversible conjugation of LC3, a membrane scaffolding protein, to double membrane autophagosomes. Recently, a role for LC3 in the elimination of pathogenic bacteria and fungi, including Candida albicans (C. albicans), was demonstrated, but these organisms reside in single membrane phagosomes. This process is distinct from autophagy and is termed LC3-associated phagocytosis (LAP). This review will detail the hallmarks of LAP that distinguish it from classical autophagy and review the role of autophagy proteins in host response to C. albicans and other pathogenic fungi.