Lesions of the lateral habenula excite dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area and serotonin neurons in the dorsal raphe nuclei in hemiparkinsonian rats.

The lateral habenula (LHb) projects to the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and dorsal raphe nuclei (DRN) that deliver dopamine (DA) and serotonin (5-HT) to cortical and limbic regions such as the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), hippocampus and basolateral amygdala (BLA). Dysfunctions of VTA-related mesocorticolimbic dopaminergic and DRN-related serotonergic systems contribute to non-motor symptoms in Parkinson's disease (PD). However, how the LHb affects the VTA and DRN in PD remains unclear. Here, we used electrophysiological and neurochemical approaches to explore the effects of LHb lesions on the firing activity of VTA and DRN neurons, as well as the levels of DA and 5-HT in related brain regions in unilateral 6-hydroxydopamie (6-OHDA)-induced PD rats. We found that compared to sham lesions, lesions of the LHb increased the firing rate of DA neurons in the VTA and 5-HT neurons in the DRN, but decreased the firing rate of GABAergic neurons in the same nucleus. In addition, lesions of the LHb increased the levels of DA and 5-HT in the mPFC, ventral hippocampus and BLA compared to sham lesions. These findings suggest that lesions of the LHb enhance the activity of mesocorticolimbic dopaminergic and serotonergic systems in PD.

Troxerutin dampened hypothalamic neuroinflammation via microglial IL-22/IL-22R1/IRF3 activation in dihydrotestosterone-induced polycystic ovary syndrome rats.

BACKGROUND: Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is the most common reproductive-endocrine condition in premenopausal women. Troxerutin, a common clinical anti-coagulant agent, was shown to work as a strong IL-22 boosting agent counteracting the hyperactivated gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons and heightened GnRH release, the neuroendocrine origin of PCOS with unknown mechanism in rats. Exploring the off-label use of troxerutin medication for PCOS is thus sorely needed. METHODS: Serum IL-22 content and hypothalamic IL-22 protein were detected. Inflammatory factor levels in hypothalamo-pituitary were evaluated. Immunofluorescence staining was employed to determine the activation and M1/M2-prone polarization of microglia in arcuate hypothalamus and median eminence. RNA-sequencing and transcriptome analysis were applied to explore the potential driver of microglia M2-polarization in response to IL-22 bolstering effect. The function of microglial IL-22/IL-22R1/IRF3 system was further verified using in vivo knockdown of IL-22R1 and a potent IRF3 inhibitor in BV2 microglial cell lines in vitro. RESULTS: Troxerutin augmented serum IL-22 content, and its consequent spillover into the hypothalamus led to the direct activation of IL-22R1/IRF3 system on microglia, thereby promoted microglia M2 polarization in arcuate hypothalamus and median eminence, dampened hypothalamic neuroinflammation, inhibited hyperactive GnRH and rescued a breadth of PCOS-like traits in dihydrotestosterone (DHT) rats. The salutary effects of troxerutin treatment on hypothalamic neuroinflammation, microglial M1/2 polarization, GnRH secretion and numerous PCOS-like features were blocked by in vivo knockdown of IL-22R1. Moreover, evidence in vitro illustrated that IL-22 supplement to BV-2 microglia cell lines promoted M2 polarization, overproduction of anti-inflammatory marker and limitation of pro-inflammatory factors, whereas these IL-22 effects were blunted by geldanamycin, a potent IRF3 inhibitor. CONCLUSION: Here, the present study reported the potential off-label use of troxerutin medication, a common clinical anti-coagulant agent and an endogenous IL-22 enhancer, for multiple purposes in PCOS. The rational underlying the application of troxerutin as a therapeutic choice in PCOS derived from its activity as an IL-22 memetic agent targeting the neuro-endocrine origin of PCOS, and its promotive impact on microglia M2 polarization via activating microglial IL-22R1/IRF3 system in the arcuate hypothalamus and median eminence of DHT female rats.

Anti-virulence and bactericidal activities of Stattic against Shigella sonnei.

IMPORTANCE: Shigella sonnei is a major human enteric pathogen that causes bacillary dysentery. The increasing spread of drug-resistant S. sonnei strains has caused an emergent need for the development of new antimicrobial agents against this pathogenic bacterium. In this study, we demonstrate that Stattic employs two antibacterial mechanisms against S. sonnei. It exerted both anti-virulence activity and bactericidal activity against S. sonnei, suggesting that it shows advantages over traditional antibiotics. Moreover, Stattic showed excellent synergistic effects with kanamycin, ampicillin, chloramphenicol, and gentamicin against S. sonnei. Our findings suggest that Stattic has promising potential for development as a new antibiotic or as an adjuvant to antibiotics for infections caused by S. sonnei.

Anti-virulence strategy of diaryl chalcogenide compounds against Candida albicans infection.

Candida albicans is an important opportunistic pathogenic fungus that frequently causes serious systemic infection in humans. Due to the vital roles of biofilm formation and the yeast-to-hypha transition in the infection process, we have selected a series of diaryl chalcogenides and tested their efficacy against C. albicans SC5314 pathogenicity by the inhibition of biofilm formation and the yeast-to-hypha transition. The compounds 5-sulfenylindole and 5-selenylindole were found to have excellent abilities to inhibit both biofilm formation and hyphal formation in C. albicans SC5314. Intriguingly, the two leading compounds also markedly attenuated C. albicans SC5314 virulence in human cell lines and mouse infection models at micromolar levels. Furthermore, our results showed that the presence of the compounds at 100 µM resulted in a marked decrease in the expression of genes involved in the cAMP-PKA and MAPK pathways in C. albicans SC5314. Intriguingly, the compounds 5-sulfenylindole and 5-selenylindole not only attenuated the cytotoxicity of Candida species strains but also showed excellent synergistic effects with antifungal agents against the clinical drug-resistant C. albicans strain HCH12. The compound 5-sulfenylindole showed an obvious advantage over fluconazole as it could also restore the composition and richness of the intestinal microbiota in mice infected by C. albicans. Together, these results suggest that diaryl chalcogenides can potentially be designed as novel clinical therapeutic agents against C. albicans infection. The diaryl chalcogenides of 5-sulfenylindole and 5-selenylindole discovered in this study can provide new direction for developing antifungal agents against C. albicans infection.

Spatiotemporal gait parameter fluctuations in older adults affected by mild cognitive impairment: comparisons among three cognitive dual-task tests.

BACKGROUNDS: Gait disorder is associated with cognitive functional impairment, and this disturbance is more pronouncedly when performing additional cognitive tasks. Our study aimed to characterize gait disorders in mild cognitive impairment (MCI) under three dual tasks and determine the association between gait performance and cognitive function. METHODS: A total of 260 participants were enrolled in this cross-sectional study and divided into MCI and cognitively normal control. Spatiotemporal and kinematic gait parameters (31 items) in single task and three dual tasks (serial 100-7, naming animals and words recall) were measured using a wearable sensor. Baseline characteristics of the two groups were balanced using propensity score matching. Important gait features were filtered using random forest method and LASSO regression and further described using logistic analysis. RESULTS: After matching, 106 participants with MCI and 106 normal controls were recruited. Top 5 gait features in random forest and 4 ~ 6 important features in LASSO regression were selected. Robust variables associating with cognitive function were temporal gait parameters. Participants with MCI exhibited decreased swing time and terminal swing, increased mid stance and variability of stride length compared with normal control. Subjects walked slower when performing an extra dual cognitive task. In the three dual tasks, words recall test exhibited more pronounced impact on gait regularity, velocity, and dual task cost than the other two cognitive tests. CONCLUSION: Gait assessment under dual task conditions, particularly in words recall test, using portable sensors could be useful as a complementary strategy for early detection of MCI.

Evaluation of Steaming and Drying of Black Sesame Seeds for Nine Cycles Using Grey-Correlation Analysis Based on Variation-Coefficient Weight.

This study aimed to improve the steaming process of black sesame seeds. A comprehensive evaluation was conducted using the grey-correlation method based on the variation-coefficient weight to observe the treatments of normal-pressure (NPS) and high-pressure (HPS) steaming (with/without soaking in water) for nine cycles. Their effects on the contents of water, protein, fat, ash, melanin, sesamin, and sesamolin of black sesame seeds, as well as the sensory score of the black sesame pill, were determined. We found that with varied steaming methods and increased steaming cycles, the contents of the nutritional and functional components of black sesame seeds and the sensory score of the black sesame pill differed. The results of the variation-coefficient method showed that water, protein, fat, ash, melanin, sesamin, sesamolin, and sensory score had different effects on the quality of black sesame seeds with weighting factors of 34.4%, 5.3%, 12.5%, 11.3%, 13.9%, 11.3%, 7.8%, and 3.5%, respectively. The results of two-factor analysis of variance without repeated observations indicated that the grey-correlation degree of HPS was the largest among the different steaming treatments, and the following sequence was HPS after soaking in water (SNPS), NPS, and SNPS. There was no significant difference between NPS and SNPS (p < 0.05). Moreover, with increased cycles, the value of the grey-correlation degree increased. The comprehensive score of the procedure repeated nine times was significantly higher than other cycles (p < 0.05). The results of the grey-correlation degree and grade analysis showed that the best steaming process of black sesame seeds was HPS for nine cycles, followed by HPS for eight cycles and NPS after soaking in water (SNPS) for nine cycles. These findings could provide a scientific basis for replacing SNPS with HPS to simplify steaming and realize the parametric steaming of black sesame seeds, and thus, ensure the quality of black-sesame products.

Basic Characterization of Natural Transformation in Avibacterium paragallinarum.

Avibacterium paragallinarum is the pathogen involved in infectious coryza (IC), an acute infectious upper respiratory disease in chickens. The prevalence of IC has increased in China in recent years. There is a lack of reliable and effective procedures for gene manipulation, which has limited the research on the bacterial genetics and pathogenesis of A. paragallinarum. Natural transformation has been developed as a method of gene manipulation in Pasteurellaceae by the introduction of foreign genes or DNA fragments into bacterial cells, but there has been no report on natural transformation in A. paragallinarum. In this study, we analyzed the existence of homologous genetic factors and competence proteins underlying natural transformation in A. paragallinarum and established a method for transformation in it. Through bioinformatics analysis, we identified 16 homologs of Haemophilus influenzae competence proteins in A. paragallinarum. We found that the uptake signal sequence (USS) was overrepresented in the genome of A. paragallinarum (1,537 to 1,641 copies of the core sequence ACCGCACTT). We then constructed a plasmid, pEA-KU, that carries the USS and a plasmid, pEA-K, without the USS. These plasmids can be transferred via natural transformation into naturally competent strains of A. paragallinarum. Significantly, the plasmid that carries USS showed a higher transformation efficiency. In summary, our results demonstrate that A. paragallinarum has the ability to undergo natural transformation. These findings should prove to be a valuable tool for gene manipulation in A. paragallinarum. IMPORTANCE Natural transformation is an important mechanism for bacteria to acquire exogenous DNA molecules during the process of evolution. Additionally, it can also be used as a method to introduce foreign genes into bacteria under laboratory conditions. Natural transformation does not require equipment such as an electroporation apparatus. It is easy to perform and is similar to gene transfer under natural conditions. However, there have been no reports on natural transformation in Avibacterium paragallinarum. In this study, we analyzed the presence of homologous genetic factors and competence proteins underlying natural transformation in A. paragallinarum. Our results indicate that natural competence could be induced in A. paragallinarum serovars A, B, and C. Furthermore, the method that we established to transform plasmids into naturally competent A. paragallinarum strains was stable and efficient.

A 4-Hydroxybenzoic Acid-Mediated Signaling System Controls the Physiology and Virulence of Shigella sonnei.

Many bacteria use small molecules, such as quorum sensing (QS) signals, to perform intraspecies signaling and interspecies or interkingdom communication. Previous studies demonstrated that some bacteria regulate their physiology and pathogenicity by employing 4-hydroxybenzoic acid (4-HBA). Here, we report that 4-HBA controls biological functions, virulence, and anthranilic acid production in Shigella sonnei. The biosynthesis of 4-HBA is performed by UbiC (SSON_4219), which is a chorismate pyruvate-lyase that catalyzes the conversion of chorismate to 4-HBA. Deletion of ubiC caused S. sonnei to exhibit impaired phenotypes, including impaired biofilm formation, extracellular polysaccharide (EPS) production, and virulence. In addition, we found that 4-HBA controls the physiology and virulence of S. sonnei through the response regulator AaeR (SSON_3385), which contains a helix-turn-helix (HTH) domain and a LysR substrate-binding (LysR_substrate) domain. The same biological functions are controlled by AaeR and the 4-HBA signal, and 4-HBA-deficient mutant phenotypes were rescued by in trans expression of AaeR. We found that 4-HBA binds to AaeR and then enhances the binding of AaeR to the promoter DNA regions in target genes. Moreover, we revealed that 4-HBA from S. sonnei reduces the competitive fitness of Candida albicans by interfering with morphological transition. Together, our results suggested that the 4-HBA signaling system plays crucial roles in bacterial physiology and interkingdom communication. IMPORTANCE Shigella sonnei is an important pathogen in human intestines. Following previous findings that some bacteria employ 4-HBA as a QS signal to regulate biological functions, we demonstrate that 4-HBA controls the physiology and virulence of S. sonnei. This study is significant because it identifies both the signal synthase UbiC and receptor AaeR and unveils the signaling pathway of 4-HBA in S. sonnei. In addition, this study also supports the important role of 4-HBA in microbial cross talk, as 4-HBA strongly inhibits hyphal formation by Candida albicans. Together, our findings describe the dual roles of 4-HBA in both intraspecies signaling and interkingdom communication.

Olfactory function changes and the predictive performance of the Chinese Smell Identification Test in patients with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease.

Objectives: Olfactory disorder is one of the sensory features that reflects a decline in cognitive function. However, olfactory changes and the discernibility of smell testing in the aging population have yet to be fully elucidated. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the effectiveness of the Chinese Smell Identification Test (CSIT) in distinguishing individuals with cognitive decline from those with normal aging and to determine whether the patients with MCI and AD show changes in their olfactory identification abilities. Methods: This cross-sectional study included eligible participants aged over 50 years between October 2019 and December 2021. The participants were divided into three groups: individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), individuals with Alzheimer's disease (AD), and cognitively normal controls (NCs). All participants were assessed using neuropsychiatric scales, the Activity of Daily Living scale, and the 16-odor cognitive state test (CSIT) test. The test scores and the severity of olfactory impairment were also recorded for each participant. Results: In total, 366 eligible participants were recruited, including 188 participants with MCI, 42 patients with AD, and 136 NCs. Patients with MCI achieved a mean CSIT score of 13.06 ± 2.05, while patients with AD achieved a mean score of 11.38 ± 3.25. These scores were significantly lower than those of the NC group (14.6 ± 1.57; P < 0.001). An analysis showed that 19.9% of NCs exhibited mild olfactory impairment, while 52.7% of patients with MCI and 69% of patients with AD exhibited mild to severe olfactory impairment. The CSIT score was positively correlated with the MoCA and MMSE scores. The CIST score and the severity of olfactory impairment were identified as robust indicators for MCI and AD, even after adjusting for age, gender, and level of education. Age and educational level were identified as two important confounding factors that influence cognitive function. However, no significant interactive effects were observed between these confounders and CIST scores in determining the risk of MCI. The area under the ROC curve (AUC) generated from the ROC analysis was 0.738 and 0.813 in distinguishing patients with MCI and patients with AD from NCs based on the CIST scores, respectively. The optimal cutoff for distinguishing MCI from NCs was 13, and for distinguishing AD from NCs was 11. The AUC for distinguishing AD from MCI was 0.62. Conclusions: The olfactory identification function is frequently affected in patients with MCI and patients with AD. CSIT is a beneficial tool for the early screening of cognitive impairment among elderly patients with cognitive or memory issues.

Elongation factor P modulates Acinetobacter baumannii physiology and virulence as a cyclic dimeric guanosine monophosphate effector.

Cyclic diguanosine monophosphate (c-di-GMP) is widely used by bacteria to control biological functions in response to diverse signals or cues. A previous study showed that potential c-di-GMP metabolic enzymes play a role in the regulation of biofilm formation and motility in Acinetobacter baumannii. However, it was unclear whether and how A. baumannii cells use c-di-GMP signaling to modulate biological functions. Here, we report that c-di-GMP is an important intracellular signal in the modulation of biofilm formation, motility, and virulence in A. baumannii. The intracellular level of c-di-GMP is principally controlled by the diguanylate cyclases (DGCs) A1S_1695, A1S_2506, and A1S_3296 and the phosphodiesterase (PDE) A1S_1254. Intriguingly, we revealed that A1S_2419 (an elongation factor P [EF-P]), is a novel c-di-GMP effector in A. baumannii. Response to a c-di-GMP signal boosted A1S_2419 activity to rescue ribosomes from stalling during synthesis of proteins containing consecutive prolines and thus regulate A. baumannii physiology and pathogenesis. Our study presents a unique and widely conserved effector that controls bacterial physiology and virulence by sensing the second messenger c-di-GMP.

The Protective Efficacy of an Inactivated Vaccine against Avibacterium paragallinarum Field Isolates.

Infectious coryza (IC) is an acute respiratory disease caused by Avibacterium paragallinarum (Av. paragallinarum). In recent years, there have been frequent outbreaks of IC in chickens vaccinated with an inactivated vaccine, causing huge losses to the poultry industry. In this study, the protective efficacy of the trivalent inactivated IC vaccine (PT Medion Farma Jaya) against the field isolates of three serovars of Av. paragallinarum was verified. After vaccination, the hemagglutination inhibition antibody titers in double-vaccinated groups (A2, B2, and C2) were higher than those in single-vaccinated groups (A1, B1, and C1). The highest antibody titer was 213.1 at 3 weeks after the booster vaccination in group A2. Consistent with the trend in hemagglutination inhibition antibody titers, the protective efficacy of double vaccination was better than that of single vaccination. The clinical symptoms and pathological changes were alleviated, or the bacterial shedding was significantly reduced with double vaccination after challenge with field isolates of three serovars (p < 0.05). In particular, the chickens with double vaccination showed no clinical symptoms, pathological changes, or bacterial shedding after challenge by the serovar C strain. There was no significant difference in body weight and egg production between the double-vaccinated groups and the negative control group (p > 0.05). Therefore, we recommend that the commercial IC vaccine should be double-vaccinated in clinical applications.

Troxerutin attenuates insulin resistance via pancreatic IL-22/JAK1/STAT3 signaling activation in dihydrotestosterone-induced polycystic ovary syndrome rats.

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is an extremely common endocrine-metabolic disorder and the main cause of infertility in premenopausal women, thus targeted treatments are sorely needed. Accumulative evidence showed that exogenous supplementation of IL-22 in PCOS mice may be of significant positive effect on insulin resistance (IR), a root causative factor for this condition, but much remained unknown about its mechanism. According to our previous study, troxerutin, a common anticoagulant and thrombolytic agent in clinic, alleviated various PCOS-like phenotypes in dihydrotestosterone (DHT)-treated rat model with unclear mechanism. Here, glucose tolerance tests (GTTs), insulin tolerance tests (ITTs), and homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) analyses revealed that troxerutin treatment in DHT-treated rats also significantly improved insulin resistance and enhanced serum IL-22 levels, which thereby activated IL-22R1/Janus kinase 1 (JAK1)/signal transducer and activator of transcription-3 (STAT3) signaling pathway in pancreatic islet. This protective effect of troxerutin on insulin resistance improvement was blocked by an inhibitor of p-STAT3, S3I-201. Troxerutin administration to DHT rats decreased the relative abundance of Bifidobacterium and enhanced secondary bile acid profiles, which were positively correlated with serum IL-22 concentration. Conclusively, the present study reported that troxerutin is an endogenous enhancer of IL-22 and the effect of troxerutin on insulin resistance improvement was via IL-22R1/JAK1/STAT3 signaling activation in a DHT-induced PCOS rat model. These insights may be translated into a primary therapeutic agent for PCOS with insulin resistance and hyperandrogenism.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Troxerutin decreased the relative abundance of Bifidobacterium, along with enhancement of secondary bile acids/IL-22 system, which thereby activated its downstream IL-22R1/JAK1/STAT3 signaling pathway in pancreatic ß cells, subsequently attenuated insulin resistance (IR), hyperandrogenism and PCOS-like phenotypes in DHT-induced PCOS rat models. Troxerutin is an endogenous IL-22 enhancer and may be of therapeutic value for PCOS with insulin resistance.

Dopamine D4 receptors in the lateral habenula regulate depression-related behaviors via a pre-synaptic mechanism in experimental Parkinson's disease.

Although multiple studies report that unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine lesions of the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) in rats induce depressive-like behaviors and hyperactivity of the lateral habenula (LHb), effects of dopamine (DA) D4 receptors in the LHb on depressive-like behaviors are unclear. Here we found that intra-LHb injection of the different doses of D4 receptor agonist A412997 and antagonist L741742 produced the different behavioral responses in SNc sham-lesioned rats, and only the high doses of A412997 and L741742 increased the expression of depressive-like behaviors or produced antidepressant-like effects in SNc-lesioned rats. The low doses of A412997 and L741742 altered the firing rate of LHb neurons and release of DA, GABA and glutamate in the LHb via the GABAergic rostromedial tegmental nucleus (RMTg) in SNc sham-lesioned rats, but not in SNc-lesioned rats. The high doses of A412997 and L741742 also altered the firing rate and release of the transmitters in both SNc sham-lesioned and SNc-lesioned rats, whereas these effects were not involved in the RMTg. Lesions of the SNc shortened the duration of significant effects on the firing rate and release of the transmitters induced by the high doses of A412997 and L741742. These findings suggest that D4 receptors in the LHb are involved in depression-like behaviors via the pre- and post-synaptic mechanisms and depletion of DA decreases the function and/or the expression of both pre- and post-synaptic D4 receptors. This study also points to the importance of the pre-synaptic D4 receptors in the regulation of Parkinson's disease-related depression.

Use of everolimus in liver transplantation.

In recent years, the use of mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitors has gained traction in their use as alternative or adjunct immunosuppressants in the post-liver transplantation (LT) setting. The efficacy of everolimus (EVR) in de novo LT is established and a reasonable time to initiate EVR is 30 d from LT surgery. Initiating EVR early post-LT allows for calcineurin inhibitor (CNI) reduction, thus reducing nephrotoxicity in LT recipients. However, data is inadequate on the appropriate timing for conversion from CNI to EVR maintenance in order to achieve optimal renoprotective effect without compromising drug efficacy. Adverse effects of proteinuria, hypercholesterolemia and hyperlipidemia are significantly higher as compared to standard CNI and long-term implications on graft and patient survival in LT is still unclear. Future research to explore strategies to minimise EVR adverse effects will be crucial for the success of EVR as an important alternative or adjunct immunosuppressive therapy in LT.

Serotonin6 receptors in the dorsal hippocampus regulate depressive-like behaviors in unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned Parkinson's rats.

Preclinical studies indicate both activation and blockade of serotonin6 (5-HT6) receptors may produce antidepressant-like effects. Depression is a common symptom in Parkinson's disease (PD); however, its pathophysiology is unclear. Here we examined whether 5-HT6 receptors in the dorsal hippocampus (DH) involve in the regulation of PD-associated depression. Unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine lesions of the medial forebrain bundle in rats induced depressive-like responses as measured by the sucrose preference and forced swim tests when compared to sham-operated rats. In sham-operated rats, intra-DH injection of 5HT6 receptor agonist WAY208466 or antagonist SB258585 increased sucrose consumption and decreased immobility time, indicating the induction of antidepressant effects. In the lesioned rats, WAY208466 also produced antidepressant effects, whereas SB258585 decreased sucrose consumption and increased immobility time, indicating the induction of depressive-like behaviors. Neurochemical results showed that WAY208466 did not change dopamine (DA) levels in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), DH and habenula, and noradrenaline (NA) levels in the DH and habenula in sham-operated rats, and SB258585 increased DA and NA levels in these structures. Further, WAY208466 increased DA levels in the mPFC, DH and habenula, and NA level in the habenula in the lesioned rats, and SB258585 decreased DA levels in the mPFC and habenula. Additionally, the lesion did not change the density of neuronal glutamate transporter EAAC1/5-HT6 receptor co-expressing neurons in the DH. Compared to sham-operated rats, these findings suggest that the effects of 5-HT6 receptors in PD-associated depression may be mediated through different neurochemical mechanisms, and the DH is an important site involved in these effects.

Spectroscopic evidence for the unusual stereochemical configuration of an endosome-specific lipid.

At a glance: The stereochemical configuration of the diglycerophosphate backbone of the endosome-specific lipid bis(monoacylglycero)phosphate (BMP, see picture) was determined by (1)H NMR spectroscopy. Enantiomeric discrimination was facilitated by introduction of D-camphor ketals as chiral shift reagents, and enantiopure synthetic BMP analogues were prepared as reference materials. Natural BMP exhibited the unusual sn-1,1' diglycerophosphate backbone.

Care of the liver transplant candidate.

Care of the liver transplant candidate is one of the most challenging, yet rewarding aspects of hepatology. Anticipation and intervention for the major complications of advanced liver disease increase the likelihood of survival until transplant.

Liver transplantation in an adult with citrullinaemia type 2.

Citrullinaemia is a urea cycle defect that results from a deficiency of the enzyme arginosuccinate synthetase. Type 1 disease is diagnosed in childhood, whereas Type 2 disease is adult onset. We report the outcome of a patient with citrullinemia Type 2 who received a liver transplant at our center and the implications of this diagnosis in liver transplantation.

Management of chronic hepatitis B.

Chronic hepatitis B continues to be a major global health burden. It accounts for a substantial impact on health care resources and finances in many parts of the world including Europe. Natural history and disease spectrum are varied, depending on when and how the infection is acquired. The chronic infective state increases patients' risk of progression to liver cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma. Several treatment options are currently available, but their use depends on the stage of the patient's infection, which is influenced by both host and viral factors. The ultimate goals in hepatitis B treatment are to prevent disease progression, hepatic decompensation, hepatocellular carcinoma, and death. Patients with decompensated liver cirrhosis should be referred to specialized transplant centers in a timely manner.